Merchant seamen crewed the ships of the British Merchant Navy which kept the United Kingdom supplied with raw materials, arms, ammunition, fuel, food and all of the necessities of a nation at war throughout World War II — literally enabling the country to defend itself. In doing this, they sustained a considerably greater casualty rate than almost every other branch of the armed services and suffered great hardship. Seamen were aged from fourteen through to their late seventies.Commonwealth War Graves Commission records
The office of the Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen calculated that 144,000 merchant seamen were serving aboard British registered merchant ships at the outbreak of World War II and that up to 185,000 men served in the Merchant Navy during the war.BBC website = WW2 People's War – Merchant NavySlader (1988), p.16 36,749 seamen were lost to enemy action, 5,720 were taken prisoner and 4,707 were wounded, totaling 47,176 casualties, a minimum casualty rate of over 25 per cent. Gabe Thomas, the former Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen (Great Britain) stated that "27 per cent of merchant seamen died through enemy action".Thomas (1995), p.ix
Merchant Seamen Merchant seamen are civilians who elect to work at sea. Their working practices in 1939 had changed little in hundreds of years. They "signed on" to sail aboard a ship for a voyage or succession of voyages and after being "paid off" at the end of that time were free to either sign on for a further engagement if they were required, or to take unpaid "leave" before "signing on" aboard another ship or otherwise to settle and work ashore.
Merchant seamen were professional seamen sailing in a wide range of roles from the youngest "Boy" rating learning his chosen profession through to the qualified Master Mariner (locally referred to as the captain), all were merchant seamen regardless of role or rank.
On one engagement a seaman could be a member of the crew of the 81,000-ton ocean liner serving as a troopship between Australia and England and on their next engagement they might be sailing in a 400-ton coastal collier delivering coal from the collieries of the north-east of England to London's power stations on the Thames Estuary. His engagement aboard ship might be for two or three weeks or for twelve months or more away from England depending upon the work the ship was to carry out.Hope (1982), variousDyer (1988), p.3
Merchant Seamen aboard British registered vessels during World War II were both male and female and might be registered with the British, Indian, Canadian, Australian or New Zealand Merchant navies, or the Fishing Fleet.
The youngest merchant seamen were invariably "Boy" ratings, Deck Boys, Galley Boys, Mess Room Boys, Stewards Boys or Cabin Boys and were typically 14 or 15 years of age.CWGC details – WC Hills (aged 14)
Two brothers, Ken and Ray Lewis from Cardiff, were killed sailing together aboard the aged 14 and 15 years respectively when it was sunk by .CWGC details – KJ Lewis (aged 14)CWGC details – RL Lewis (aged 15)
Frequent cases of family members sailing together occurred but this had tragic results when ships were sunk; for example three members of the Attard family from Gozo, Malta died on 15 September 1941 when the SS Newbury was lost, three Roberts brothers also perished on 23 June 1941 when the SS Arakaka went down.CWGC details – Roberts brothers Although sailing aboard different ships was not a failsafe solution, three sons of the Metcalf family from Sunderland were lost, three sons of the Nicol family from Edinburgh and three of the Stiff family from Barry, Glamorgan all died.Commonwealth War Graves Commission
The oldest known serving merchant seamen were in their seventies, Chief Cook Santan Martins of was aged 79 when he was killed in action in her sinking by in December 1940.CWGC details – S Martins (aged 79)
The Merchant Navy
The British Merchant Navy of World War II, previously known as the "Merchant Service" or "Mercantile Marine" comprised the merchant shipping registered in Great Britain and independently operated by British commercial shipping companies. Those vessels carried cargo to and from the country and those of the Commonwealth to sustain its war effort. Following the heroism and hardships endured by seamen of the "Mercantile Marine" in World War I King George V coined the title Merchant Navy in recognition. The Prince of Wales adopted the title "Master of the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets" in 1928. In World War II the title Merchant Navy came into normal usage and with Royal approval, a small silver buttonhole badge was produced for the non-uniformed merchant seamen from January 1940 bearing the letters "MN".Lane (1990), p.22
The Ministry of War Transport (MoWT) was a department of the British Government formed on 1 May 1941 when Lord Leathers was appointed Minister of War Transport to control transportation policy and resources. It was formed by merging the Ministry of Shipping and the Ministry of Transport, bringing responsibility for both shipping and land transport to a single department, and easing problems of co-ordination of transport in wartime. From this point onwards the "MoWT" decided upon the route sailed and the cargo carried by every ship.
Merchant seamen at war, 1939 – May 1941 From the outbreak of war in September 1939, individual seamen could decide if they wished to sail and risk attack by German forces, or in the face of extremely high losses, if they wished to change their occupation to work ashore or otherwise enlist in the Armed Forces.Linskey (1992), p.75 Although sailors in the Merchant Navy were given this choice, the reality was that the Royal Navy was desperately short of men, and discouraged leaving the Merchant Navy; once sailors had signed a T124x agreement, the Royal Navy could move them to any ship, give them Royal Navy training, and use their services under the white ensign. In addition, existing Merchant Navy members did not know how dangerous service would be at this time. Once they signed a T124x agreement, they had no choice but to continue to serve. The losses of shipping vessels and their crews in 1940 and 1941 neared a peak, with 779 ships sunk and 16,654 seamen killed or missing, approximately 49 per cent of all British merchant sailors. Fortunately for Great Britain, the great majority of seamen continued to take the risk, and the nation's war supplies and food continued to arrive.Slader (1988), various
Until May 1941, merchant seamen sailing aboard British vessels that were attacked and sunk by enemy action received no pay from the moment the ship capsized. Many seaman fortunate enough to survive sinkings spent days or weeks in open lifeboats hoping for rescue; despite the brutal conditions sailors faced in lifeboats, this time was regarded as "non-working time," and the seaman was not paid; the reasoning given being that their employer, in the shipping company who had owned the lost vessel, no longer required their services.Lane (1990), p.31Bennett (1999), p.204-205
Emergency Work Order – May 1941 In May 1941, "Emergency Work (Merchant Navy) Order, Notice No. M198" was passed by the British Parliament in recognition of the desperate situation facing Great Britain. Under this new order, a Merchant Navy Reserve Pool was established, which was to ensure that available seamen were allocated to ships which needed crew, it required seamen to continue to serve for the duration of the war, they were guaranteed a wage for that period including time spent in lifeboats or in captivity and it provided for two days paid leave earned per month served.Lane (1990), p.31-32
Merchant seamen 1939–1945 The British Merchant Navy was the largest in the world and required more crew than Great Britain had merchant seamen, as a result large numbers of Indian, Chinese and West African seamen were engaged to crew ships which regularly traded from Great Britain to ports in those areas. Additionally men from Commonwealth countries sailed aboard British ships as did many others from Scandinavia, the Netherlands and most other countries of the world, including Germany and Japan.
Traditionally it was a very open society, almost free of distinctions of class, race, religion, age or colour. The mixture of nationalities making the atmosphere similar to a "Foreign Legion". Some were sailing under aliases to escape family problems, legal issues or simply because they wished to begin new lives.
Many seamen came from British port towns and cities and followed their fathers and uncles to sea, often sailing with family members.
It was not unusual for men to have no fixed abode and to live in "Seamen's Hostels" in port for a week or two before their next trip.
Women at sea Traditionally, women sailed as "merchant seamen" aboard ocean liners and larger passenger carrying vessels, usually as chief stewardesses, stewardesses or assistant stewardesses but also working in the laundries and in nursing (as nursing sisters), in child care roles and as assistants in the on-board shops until the reduction in passenger traffic removed all but a tiny number. Approaching 50 died when their ships were attacked and sunk during World War II. One example was Lily (or Lillie) Ann Green, a stewardess awarded a King's Commendation for Brave Conduct for her bravery when the SS Andalucia Star was torpedoed and sunk off West Africa in 1942.CWGC details – Lily A Green
A small number of women sailed as radio officers, including the radio officer of the SS Viggo Hansteen. Maud Elizabeth Stean of the Canadian Merchant Navy, who died on 14 August 1944, aged 28, and one or two women sailed as "engineer officers". For example Victoria Drummond, Second Engineer of SS Bonita, who was awarded an MBE and a Lloyd's War Medal for Bravery for her services when the ship was attacked and bombed by the Luftwaffe.
Naval Auxiliary personnel
In the early war years Britain desperately needed fast convoy escorts and lacked the number of warships to fulfil this role. Several ocean liners were "taken up from trade" by the Royal Navy to act as armed merchant cruisers (AMCs), after having basic armament fitted. As these ships already had experienced crews, the merchant seamen were asked to sign a T.124 agreement to serve alongside the Royal Navy in naval uniform as members of Naval Auxiliary Personnel subject to naval discipline. Approaching 10,000 seamen, mostly reluctantly signed for a period of service up to 12 months,Lane (1990), p.21-22
One of the AMCs mainly crewed by large numbers of merchant seamen was , which fought a tragically unequal battle with the German cruiser Admiral Scheer in defence of Convoy HX 84. Jervis Bay was lost but had bought sufficient time for the convoy to escape annihilation.CBC News – HMS Jervis Bay story
Engagement aboard ship Traditionally merchant seamen were administered from a Mercantile Marine Office; the local port office of the Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen. Such offices existed in major Ports such as Glasgow, Leith, Newcastle/South Shields, London, Southampton, Cardiff and Liverpool. The "MMO" was managed by a Mercantile Superintendent of the Civil Service and his team of clerks and messengers.