Witchcraft () has been present throughout the Philippines even before Spanish colonization, and is associated with indigenous Philippine folk religions, where Philippine shamans, who people come to for healing and rituals, are known to counter the magic of Philippine witches, who people fear. Its practice involves black magic, specifically a malevolent use of sympathetic magic. Today, practices are said to be centered in Siquijor, Cebu, Davao, Talalora, Western Samar, and Sorsogon, where many of the country's faith healers reside. Witchcraft also exists in many of the hinterlands, especially in Cebu and Siquijor; however, witchcraft is known and occurs anywhere in the country.
In the Philippines, witches are said to use black magic and related practices, depending on the ethnic group they are associated with. Witchcraft in the Philippines is completely different from modern Western notions of a "witch", as each ethnic group has their own definition and practices attributed to witches. In the Philippines, witches in the traditional non-Westernized sense are malevolent forces who can be sought after to inflict curses on others, although in few instances, they can also bring justice when some injustices occur by way of curses. The curses and other machinations of witches can be lifted by Filipino shamans associated with the indigenous Philippine folk religions. When shamans were demonized by colonizers and followers of the colonial faiths, most shamans were replaced by traditional healers influenced by the Christian or Islamic faiths.
Terminology Each ethnic group in the Philippines has their own terms for witches. Some of these are as follows:Folk Practices and Beliefs in Leyte and Samar, Richard Arens, Divine Word University Publications, 1982Customs of the Tagalogs, Juan de Plasencis, 1589Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Practices, F. R. Demetrio, Xavier University, 1991
Tagalog: , Waray: , , , Bisaya: aswang, mambabarang
Filipino ethnic groups have their own specific terms associated with the practice of witchcraft. Some of these include the following:
Ilocano: gamod, tanem Tagalog: , Visayan: , , , , , Moro: pantak
Black magic Filipino witches are believed to have powers that cause harm to other people secretly. Healer-sorcerers who practice this kind of sorcery usually describe it as a form of criminal punishment, as a widespread belief is that black magic does not work on people who are innocent. Their targets are usually "wrongdoers" like thieves, adulterous spouses, or land grabbers. There are also so-called “true” sorcerers who are believed to inherit their supernatural powers through their lineage. Unlike healers, they do not judge the justice of their actions. The latter type of sorcerers are often associated with the evil supernatural beings capable of appearing human, like aswang and manananggal.
One of the most common kind of black magic is a malevolent use of sympathetic magic. This is known by various names like kulam, gaway (Tagalog); barang, hiwit, lágà (Visayan); tanem, tamay (Ilocano); and pantak (Moro). Despite the differences in terminology, the methods is almost similar across the Philippine islands (and indeed, across Southeast Asia). This type of sorcery uses beetles, effigies, poppets, a boiling pot or some other type of representation of the target victim. These are usually "linked" by including bodily exuviae like hair or nail clippings. These practices are performed through chants, spells, or symbols, which may sometimes be combined with Christian or Muslim rituals.The sorcerer then either harms the effigy to cause similar harm to the victim, or physically "sends" objects into the victim's body (which can range from insects, stones, to needles). In some instances, the ingredients of the ritual themselves determine the effects. For example, adding seawater to a boiling pot "linked" to a victim is said to cause the victim's belly to bloat and ache in time with the tides. This type of sorcery was documented as early as the 17th century by Francisco Combés.
Other malevolent powers are more direct. These include the ability to kill another person instantly with magic spells, the ability to cast curses or the evil eye, the ability to "abduct" a person's soul, or the ability to send evil spirits or familiar animals to possess or harm the victim.
Some of these purportedly sorcerous powers may be explained by the use of poisons (hilo or lason) and sleight of hand. In most cases however, accusations of this type of black magic are often borne out of paranoia, moral panic, or mass hysteria against disliked or mistrusted members of the community, similar to the European witch-hunts. People accused of black magic were often subject to ostracization and in many cases, violence. This was especially true during the Spanish colonial period, where in one instance in the mid-19th century, a Filipino curate ordered the assassination of 57 people he suspected were sorcerers casting evil spells on his sick mother.
Sorcerous "attacks" are most commonly treated with sumbalik (counter-spells or antidotes), which are themselves, a form of sorcery and do not usually require interaction with the spirits. They purportedly deflect the effects of the curse and return it to the caster. In extreme cases, sumbalik can kill the caster. Other healing rituals for sorcery are not intended to harm the caster but are believed to evoke their compassion, prompt them to lift the curse.
Methods Kulam uses beetles, effigies, poppets, a boiling pot or some other type of representation of the target victim. These are usually "linked" by including bodily exuviae like hair or nail clippings. These are triggered by chants, spells, or symbols (sometimes syncretized with Christian or Muslim rituals). The sorcerer then either harms the effigy to cause corresponding harm to the victim, or physically "sends" objects into the victim's body (which can range from insects, stones, to pins). Earth (soil), fire, herbs, spices, candles, oils and kitchenware and utensils are commonly used for rituals, charms, spells and potions. In some instances, the ingredients of the ritual themselves determine the effects. For example, adding seawater to a boiling pot "connected" to a victim is said to cause the victim's belly to swell and ache in time with the tides. This type of sorcery was documented as early as the 17th century by Francisco Combés. Barang (the term barang refers to a type of beetle in Visayan) usually employs a swarm of destructive insects, specifically carnivorous beetles. Other techniques are usik (sharp magic, or induced illnesses using smaller insects), hilo and lason (poison magic), (doll magic, using skulls or representations of the victim), laga (boiling magic, Lágà sometimes written as la-ga or la-aga, means to brew or to boil [in a pot](McClenon, 1985), and sampal (sea creature magic). Other malevolent powers are more direct. These include the ability to harm another person instantly with magic spells, the ability to cast curses or the evil eye, the ability to "abduct" a person's soul, or the ability to send evil spirits or familiar animals to possess or injure the victim.
Practitioners There are various names for sorcerers in Philippine ethnic groups. Most of these names have negative connotations, and thus is also translated to "witch" or "hag" in English sources. These witches encompass a wide range of individuals who may differ considerably in terms of their occupations, social roles, practices, and cultural associations. Their identities and the ways in which they are viewed can differ depending on the specific ethnic group, community, or cultural tradition with which they are associated. As a result, the concept of a witch is not necessarily consistent across different groups, as each community may have its own beliefs, interpretations, and characteristics ascribed to these individuals. They are completely different from the Western notion of what a witch is. They include Bikol: parakaraw; Ilocano: managtanem, managinulod, mannamay; Ivatan: , ; Kapampangan: mangkukusim (or mangkukusino); Pangasinan: , ; Tagalog: mangkukulam, manggagaway,"Tagalog-English Dictionary by Leo James English, Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, Manila, distributed by National Book Store, 1583 pages, may-galing, hukluban (or hukloban); Visayan: dalagangan, dunganon, dalongdongan, busalian, mambabarang (or mamamarang, mamalarang, barangan), usikan (or ), paktolan, sigbinan, manughiwit, mamumuyag, mang-aawog (or mang-aawug, mang-aaug), Hiligaynon: . Other terms are the Spanish brujo and bruja (masculine and feminine forms of "witch"; Filipinized as bruho and bruha).
Aswang
The Aswang, vampire-like supernatural entities, are sometimes considered a type of witch since they can start out as an ordinary person. They have strong powers of sorcery (particularly shape-shifting) that they need to maintain by feeding on humans. They are also called , , , , , , etc., depending on the form they take or the method of attack they prefer. It is generally believed that an can not be born to normal parents. They either need to have an parent or gain their curse through transference called . Depending on local beliefs, this can involve an merely looking at a victim, contaminating the food of the victim with secretions, or by directly transferring their powers through touch on their deathbed.
Mangkukulam
A mangkukulam can be considered a Filipino witch, literally meaning "a practitioner of kulam". A curse is called a sumpâ (/soom-PA/), which can also be translated as a "vow" or "oath" and "curse". A mangkukulam may use a voodoo doll and a needle to cast spells on people they want to take revenge on, but largely use natural magic and superstitions similar to an arbularyo, or witch doctor. Both can be considered witches, but the main difference is that the arbularyo is more of a doctor who heals people, while a mangkukulam is a malicious person who tricks and curses others. The primary methods employed by a mangkukulam are candle lighting rituals, scrying or tawas, recitation of spells, and concocting potions. Healer-sorcerers who practice Kulam usually justify it as a form of criminal punishment, as a common belief is that black magic does not work on people who are innocent. Their targets are usually "wrongdoers" like thieves, adulterous spouses, or land grabbers. There are also "true" sorcerers who are said to have hereditary sorcerous powers. Unlike healers, they do not consider the justice of their actions. The latter type of sorcerers are often conflated with the evil supernatural beings capable of appearing human, like aswang and manananggal. Modern popular culture also depicts the mangkukulam as using either photographs or the equivalent of a Voodoo doll. Modern popular culture also depicts mangkukulam as primarily doing only love potions and malicious curses, but more extreme depictions claim they can summon ghosts to haunt dolls, raise the dead (or at least control dead bodies), and other things related to necromancy.
Mambabarang