Homophobia in ethnic minority communities is any negative prejudice or form of discrimination in ethnic minority communities worldwide towards people who identify as–or are perceived as being–lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT), known as homophobia. This may be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, irrational fear, and is sometimes related to religious beliefs.Though many religious beliefs are used to overcome homophobia as well. *
"European Parliament resolution on homophobia in Europe" , Texts adopted Wednesday, 18 January 2006 – Strasbourg Final edition- "Homophobia in Europe" at "A" point A 2006 study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in the UK found that while religion can have a positive function in many LGBT Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) communities, it can also play a role in supporting homophobia.Blakey, H, Pearce, J and Chesters, G (2006) Minorities within minorities: Beneath the surface of South Asian participation , Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York.
Many LGBT ethnic minority persons rely on members of their ethnic group for support on racial matters. Within these communities, homophobia and transphobia often exist within the context of ethnocultural norms on gender and sexual orientation. Caitlin Ryan of the National Youth Advocacy Coalition wrote; "a common fallacy within communities of color is that gay men or lesbians are perceived as 'defective' men or women who want to be a member of the opposite gender".
In some cultures, there are difficulties in categorising homosexuality. Some scholars have argued that Western notions of sexual identity began to emerge in Europe in the mid-to-late 19th century,Katz, Jonathan Ned, The Invention of Heterosexuality Plume, 1996Andrews, Walter and Kalpakli, Mehmet, The Age of Beloveds: Love and the Beloved in Early Modern Ottoman and European Culture and Society Duke University Press, 2005 pp. 11–12 though others challenge this. The author has made adapted and expanded portions of this book available online as A Critique of Social Constructionism and Postmodern Queer Theory . Behaviors that would be widely regarded as homosexual in the West were regarded as acceptable in around three quarters of the cultures surveyed in Patterns of Sexual Behavior (1951).Ford, C. S. & Beach, F. A. (1951). Patterns of Sexual Behavior. New York: Harper and Row.
Theory Intersectionality and dual minority identity Kimberlé Crenshaw developed the framework for intersectionality; the theory that black women are not wholly defined by a singular identity, which is used in the process of examining the ways in which sexuality and race are related. Considering the ways in which identities interact with each other and create specific experiences related to multiple intersecting identities is a better way of examining individuals and the discrimination they may deal with.Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299. Retrieved from
Crenshaw's work also draws upon W. E. B. Du Bois' work, which refers to the fragmented understanding of self that comes with being a black American. It is applicable to the understanding of LGB members in racial and ethnic minority groups. Their multiple identities cause a fragmentation in which they routinely observe themselves, as both queer individuals and racial and ethnic minorities, through the lens of American culture. Du Bois called this concept double consciousness.
Homophobia in ethnic minority communities creates a double bind for LGBT ethnic minorities. Members of these groups experience racial and ethnic discrimination from wider society in addition to homophobia within their ethnic/racial groups. This intersection of multiple forms of discrimination creates a triple threat for LGBT people of color. The first domain of discrimination is racism within LGBT communities which can make it hard for people who belong to an ethnic minority group to identify with the LGBT community and feel like the community is a safe space. This discrimination manifests as discrimination in social areas like bars and organizations where people of color are oftentimes excluded from the space physically and socially, and overall less likely to be welcomed.
The second domain is heterosexism within ethnic communities, which is the main focus of this article. However, heterosexism within ethnic communities cannot be treated as a completely separate issue from the other forms of discrimination as many of the forms of discrimination overlap.
The third form of discrimination is racism in close, same-sex relationships in which gay men of color are less-sought-out; solicitations for sex discriminate against race with phrases like "no rice" (referring to no East Asian men), "no curry" (which means no South Asian men), or "no chocolate" (which signifies no black men). Race-based sexual stereotypes are often used within the LGBT community, which impacts potential partner choices for ethnic minority LGBT people. Black and Latino gay men are usually considered aggressive and passionate, and Asian gay men are believed to be feminine, mechanical, and reserved. These preferences are exacerbated by Internet dating sites and apps, where gay men can tailor their partner's bodily preferences according to their tastes.
Effects on health Heterosexism in ethnic minority communities is especially harmful to the mental health of LGBT people of color, who consider their ethnic communities to be a stronger support network than LGBT communities due to racism in the latter. Abandonment by racial community that has provided support throughout childhood in dealing with external racism is feared. Due to the racial community's importance for LGBT people of color, discrimination within their own communities negatively effects mental health. If people are more dependent on their ethnic communities, they may favor their racial identity over their sexual identity. Heterosexism is thus a stressor because of the understanding of external racial oppression as well as internalized homophobia and self-hatred. Homophobia within ethnic minority communities is caused by the unique cultural practices of each ethnic minority and by the broader issue of Western, non-white discrimination.
This discrimination creates the need for a supportive community to undo the psychological damage it causes.Diaz, R. M., Ph.D., Ayala, G., PsyD., Bein, E., Ph.D., Henne, J., MA, & Marin, B. V., Ph.D. (2001). The Impact of Homophobia, Poverty, and Racism on the Mental Health of Gay and Bisexual Latino Men: Findings From 3 US Cities. American Journal of Public Health, 927-932. Non-heterosexual people of color often find that neither racial community nor sexual orientation community can cater to their psychological needs since the racial community can sometimes be homophobic and the LGBT community can sometimes be racist. Minority groups find solace in support networks among themselves but clinical spaces continue to be inaccessible to LGBT-POC. When minority people experience invalidations of their experience, it becomes difficult to find necessary health services for LGBT-POC. Within the clinic, a white psychiatrist may not understand the social needs of a person of color, and spaces for dual-minority identity development are relatively lacking. Micro-aggressions within the clinic are detrimental for mental health and prevention requires additional effort from practicing counselors to be stripped of bias, informed of unique issues, and further support networks.
Effects on coming out
Heterosexism in ethnic minority communities can account for delays in the process of coming out between dominant cultures, mostly white LGBT people and LGBT people of color. LGBT people of color, on average, come out to their families and communities later than white LGBT people. White LGBT youth will generally find it easier to come out to their families because there is a broader range of social acceptability. Since white LGBT youth can typically better identify with white-dominated LGBT communities, they can find an additional safe community outside of their biological family and face no fear of external societal racism.
Young LGBT-POC feel the additional stigma from their own community combined with the stigma white LGBT youth face, and risking alienation from family and community means losing an important support network for POC due to the cultural oppression of racial minorities. As ethnic minorities in a mostly Western context, however, ethnic communities can sometimes be strong enough to provide some form of solace for individuals who identify as LGBT. If the oppression of the ethnic minority group is stronger in general society, homophobia from within may be more bearable than losing access to a racial community. Some other research has found heterosexism and levels of internalized homophobia are similar for both white and POC LGBT people.
United States Attitudes towards sexual orientation vary throughout the United States. Social and cultural mores of sexuality have a large sociological impact on individual behavior, especially in the family unit. Many ethnic minority families in the United States do not feel comfortable discussing sexuality and disclosure of one's sexual orientation or identity often presents challenges. Many feel their coming-out may force them to be loyal to one community rather than another.Morales, Edward S. "Ethnic minority families and minority gays and lesbians." Marriage & Family Review 14.3-4 (1989): 217-239. (Abstract) In the United States, 44% of LGBT students persons of color have reported experiencing bullying based on their sexual orientation and/or race; 13% reported physical harassment and 7% reported physical assault for the same reasons.The 2005 National School Climate Survey. Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (2005), pp. 59-60.
Black community
The percentage of Black Americans who believe that homosexuality should be accepted lags behind other ethnic groups. In 2017, 63% of Black respondents polled said it should be accepted, versus the national average of 70%. Researchers have identified a range of potential explanations for this trend, including the association of the African American community with the church in the United States, gender norms within the Black community, and the idea that homosexuality is antithetical to being black. Despite a majority share of support for the LGBTQ community, 60% of respondents in one study felt that LGBTQ advances had come at the expense of Black civil rights.