The Ottoman Army was the military land force of the Ottoman Empire after the country was reorganized along modern western European lines during the Tanzimat modernization period. In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary Corps, which had existed for centuries but was unable to adapt to modern military tactics and frequently rebelled. In its place, he established the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (Victorious Soldiers of Prophet Muhammad) army that same year. The Sultan continued his reform efforts by establishing modern institutions to support the army. In 1826, he established the Seraskerlik, equivalent to a modern Ministry of Defense. In 1827, the first military medical school, Imperial School of Medicine, was opened to train doctors and surgeons for the army. In 1834, Harbiye Military School was opened with the support of French military instructors to train officers for the army.
On June 14, 1843, Sultan Abdülmecid changed the army's name to Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne (Royal Regular Soldiers). From this date onward, the army began to be known simply as the Nizami Ordu (Regular Army). In 1845, he established Kuleli Military High School, the first modern military high school, in the capital Istanbul. In 1848, the first military academy, Erkan-ı Harbiye Military Academy, was opened to train army staff officers and high-ranking officers, or pashas. The Crimean War was the first war effort in which the modern army took part in, proving itself as a decent force. The last reorganization occurred during the Second Constitutional Era.
The uniforms of the modern army reflected the military uniforms of the western European countries who were the Ottoman army's principal advisors at the time. The Ottoman government considered adopting a Western-style headdress for all personnel within the army, but the fez was favoured as it was more suited to the postures of the Islamic ritual prayer.
French-style uniform and court dress were common during the early stage of the Tanzimat period. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the Ottoman government searched for other role models, so German- and British-style uniforms became popular. During World War I, the officer uniforms were mainly based on those of the Ottoman's German allies.
Establishment of the modern army The shift from the Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than a century and began with the failed attempts of Selim III () and Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (1789–1808), continued through a period of Ottoman Military Reforms (1826–1858) and finally concluded during the reign of Abdul Hamid II (). As early as 1880, Abdul Hamid sought German assistance, which he secured two years later, culminating in the appointment of Lieutenant Colonel Otto Köhler. Although the consensus was that Abdul Hamid II favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, evidenced by his military budget cuts. The formation of the modern Ottoman army proved a slow process with period of inconsistent progression.
Modernization of the Imperial Ottoman Army and Navy
1842–1861
1861–1896
Units
Departments
Infantry Department The Infantry Department, which occupied a significant position in the central military organization, was divided into four branches in the 1890 Askerî Salname and into a correspondence office (tahrirat kalemi) and four branches in the 1908 Devlet Salnamesi (State Yearbook). The administration of the department was chaired by a Müşir and consisted of two Birindji ferik and one Ferik.
Within the offices and branches of the Infantry Department, the staff included:
Two Brigadier General (Mirliva) Two Colonel (Miralay) Two Lieutenant Colonel (Kaymakam) Two Major (Binbaşı) One Regimental Quartermaster (Alay Emini)
The department's aides-de-camp (yaver) included officers at the ranks of one Senior Captain (Kol Aghassi), four Captains (Yüzbaşı), and three Lieutenants (Mülazım). In addition to the military ranks, civil servants served in the department with the following administrative grades: one Ulâ, eight Ulâ-i Sani, three Mütemayiz, and five Sâniye.
The Infantry Department was responsible for all administrative procedures regarding the infantry, which formed the backbone of the Ottoman Army. The department maintained the identification registers (künye) of all infantry regiments, as well as the fire brigade and industrial regiments in Dersaadet (Istanbul), including both officers and private soldiers. Its duties included managing the promotion and assignment processes of commanders (ümerâ) and officers, maintaining their service registers (sicil), preparing reports (mazbata) for the awarding of officers or civil servants within the department for imperial submission, and executing these procedures upon the Sultan's decree. Furthermore, the department was tasked with examining the reports (layiha) submitted by inspectors concerning the infantry branch and preparing subsequent evaluations. It was also responsible for the admission of applicants to the Ottoman Military Academy and overseeing efforts to improve the training of existing students. Other responsibilities included reviewing books written on the infantry branch, recording submitted proposals, and examining reports regarding reforms in the uniforms, weaponry, and equipment of the infantry. The department prepared reform programs based on approved changes and implemented the decisions made by infantry commissions. Additionally, it monitored the application of existing laws during the recruitment process and oversaw the distribution of soldiers collected through the lottery system (kura) into their respective classes. The department also managed the identification registers of commanders, officers, and soldiers of the Redif (Reserve) and Müstahfız (Home Guard) forces, conducting inspections and directing the necessary procedures for their mobilisation.
Cavalry Department
The cavalry department, a key administrative body, was controlled by the General Staff, similar to the infantry department. The 1889 askerî salname shows that the department started with two branches, each managed by a ferik and a civilian. By 1908, the administrative framework had expanded to include a cavalry commission and two branches, staffed by two feriks and a high-ranking civil servant (ula-i sani). A significant part of this department was the "Çiftlikat-ı Hümayun", which managed various state-operated agricultural holdings. These included the Çifteler, Hamra, Sultan, Çukurova, and Veziriye farms. The Ottomans used these farms to meet the livestock needs of their cavalry.
The department's personnel strength comprised a diverse mix of military and civilian ranks; specifically, its commissions and branches were staffed by one ferik, two miralays, one kaymakam, three majors, two kolağası, and a captain, alongside several civil servants holding the ranks of evvel-i sâniye, sâniye, and mütemayiz. The department's main administrative duty involved managing the detailed identification records, called 'künye', for all personnel in the cavalry and remount units, from high-ranking officers (ümerâ) to enlisted soldiers. Furthermore, the department was tasked with the oversight of trainees and personnel at the cavalry training institutions and the cavalry branch of the Ottoman Military Academy. Its executive duties extended to the preparation of official reports regarding promotions, retirement plans, and military decorations for both civilian and uniformed members of the branch. These recommendations were forwarded to the Serasker for assessment, and subsequent to the Sultan's issuance of imperial decrees, the department oversaw the ultimate implementation and documentation of these administrative measures.
Furthermore, the department's purview encompassed logistics and procurement operations. It administered the operational accounts and animal breeding research of state-owned farms, thereby guaranteeing the availability of superior livestock for military applications. In the context of animal procurement, the department bore responsibility for upholding the integrity of the tendering process, thereby mitigating the potential for corruption. Additionally, it oversaw the supply of harnesses and related equipment for all military classes. In preparation for war or mobilisation, the department maintained detailed census records of privately owned animals to facilitate local requisitioning when necessary. The department's regulatory authority also included the vetting of training manuals and legal frameworks for both the regular (Nizamiye) cavalry and the Hamidiye light cavalry regiments.
While the strategic importance of cavalry diminished during the late 19th century, the organisational structure persisted through the transition into the early 20th century. By the empire's final years, the cavalry force was reorganised into three primary divisions (1st, 2nd, and 3rd Cavalry Divisions), which largely replaced the earlier Hamidiye formations after their 1910 dissolution. These modernised units were restructured into seven brigades and three independent regiments, primarily consisting of personnel recruited from Kurdish and rural Ottoman populations.
Artillery Department Following the administrative shifts necessitated by the War of 1877–78, the Artillery Department underwent a significant reorganisation to centralise the management of the regular artillery corps. The department's executive leadership typically consisted of a brigadier general serving as the director, supported by an administrative staff of two additional brigadier generals, a major general, and a senior clerk. Structurally, the department was divided into two primary branches and a specialised clerical office. By 1908, the department's staffing reflected a hybrid military-civilian framework; its military personnel included a major general and a lieutenant colonel, while the civilian bureaucracy was composed of eight officials across various ranks, including mütemayiz (distinguished) and several second and third-class officials.
The department was primarily responsible for the comprehensive personnel management of the artillery branch. This included maintaining identification registers (künye) for all personnel, ranging from regimental commanders and commissioned officers to enlisted soldiers. Beyond record-keeping, the department oversaw legal and professional rights, such as promotions, reassignments, retirements, and the issuance of decorations for both uniformed and civilian staff. Furthermore, it maintained the administrative files for students and faculty at artillery training schools, as well as the specialised records for master gunsmiths (tüfekçi ustaları) assigned to artillery regiments and battalions.
Operational and logistical oversight also constituted a core mandate of the department. It was tasked with reviewing inspection reports and formulating strategic proposals based on these findings. During both peacetime and mobilisation, the department monitored the inventory of weaponry, ammunition, and technical equipment, collaborating closely with commissions affiliated with the Artillery Inspectorate. It managed the requisition ledgers for production needs and coordinated the distribution of ordnance to active field armies. Additionally, the department held the authority to inspect military stockpiles directly or appoint expert officers to conduct technical audits. Throughout these operations, the Artillery Department functioned under the direct jurisdictional authority of the Chief of the General Staff.
Non-combatant branches
Engineering