Iranian architecture or Persian architecture is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least 5000 BC with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Iranian buildings vary greatly in scale and function, from vernacular architecture to monumental complexes.Arthur Upham Pope. Introducing Persian Architecture. Oxford University Press. London. 1971. p.1 In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as the capital Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and new construction.

According to American historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods.Arthur Pope, Introducing Persian Architecture. Oxford University Press. London. 1971. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, from a variety of traditions and experiences. Without sudden innovations, and despite the repeated trauma of invasions and cultural shocks, it developed a recognizable style distinct from other regions of the Muslim world.Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.266 Its virtues are "a marked feeling for form and scale; structural inventiveness, especially in vault and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom and success not rivaled in any other architecture".Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.266

General characteristics Fundamental principles Traditional Iranian architecture has maintained a continuity that, although temporarily distracted by internal political conflicts or foreign invasion, nonetheless has achieved an unmistakable style.

Arthur Pope, a 20th-century scholar of Persian architecture, described it in these terms: "there are no trivial buildings; even garden pavilions have nobility and dignity, and the humblest caravanserais generally have charm. In expressiveness and communicativity, most Persian buildings are lucid, even eloquent. The combination of intensity and simplicity of form provides immediacy, while ornament and, often, subtle proportions reward sustained observation."Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.10

According to scholars Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven".Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar. The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, p. 32. This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Iran, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well.Ardalan & Bakhtiar (2000), p. 32: "The emotional character of Persian architecture is derived from the resonance between the outer form and the inner state of the observer."

Materials

Available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian architecture. Heavy clays, readily available at various places throughout the plateau, have encouraged the development of the most primitive of all building techniques, molded mud, compressed as solidly as possible, and allowed to dry. This technique, used in Iran from ancient times, has never been completely abandoned. The abundance of heavy plastic earth, in conjunction with a tenacious lime mortar, also facilitated the development and use of brick.Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.9

Design

Certain design elements of Persian architecture have persisted throughout the history of Iran. The most striking are a marked feeling for scale and a discerning use of simple and massive forms. The consistency of decorative preferences, the high-arched portal set within a recess, columns with bracket capitals, and recurrent types of plan and elevation can also be mentioned. Through the ages these elements have recurred in completely different types of buildings, constructed for various programs and under the patronage of a long succession of rulers.

The columned porch, or talar, seen in the rock-cut tombs near Persepolis, reappear in Sassanid temples, and in late Islamic times it was used as the portico of a palace or mosque, and adapted even to the architecture of roadside tea-houses. Similarly, the dome on four arches, so characteristic of Sassanid times, is a still to be found in many cemeteries and Imamzadehs across Iran today. The notion of earthly towers reaching up toward the sky to mingle with the divine towers of heaven lasted into the 19th century, while the interior court and pool, the angled entrance and extensive decoration are ancient, but still common, features of Iranian architecture.

City planning A circular city plan was a characteristic of several major Parthian and Sasanian cities, such as Hatra and Gor (Firuzabad). Another city design was based on a square geometry, found in the Eastern Iranian cities such as Bam and Zaranj.

Categorization of styles Overall, Mohammad Karim Pirnia categorizes the traditional architecture of the Iranian lands throughout the ages into the six following classes or styles ("sabk"):Sabk Shenasi Mi'mari Irani (Study of styles in Iranian architecture), M. Karim Pirnia. 2005. p.24. Page 39, however, considers "pre-Parsi" as a distinct style.

Zoroastrian: The Parsian style (up until the third century BCE) including: Pre-Parsian style (up until the eighth century BCE) e.g. Chogha Zanbil, Median style (from the eighth to the sixth century BCE), Achaemenid style (from the sixth to the fourth century BCE) manifesting in construction of spectacular cities used for governance and inhabitation (such as Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana), temples made for worship and social gatherings (such as Zoroastrian temples), and mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings (such as the Tomb of Cyrus the Great), The Parthian style includes designs from the following eras: Seleucid era e.g. Anahita Temple, Khorheh, Parthian era e.g. Hatra, the royal compounds at Nisa, Sasanian era e.g. Ghal'eh Dokhtar, Taq Kasra, Bishapur, Darband (Derbent). Islamic: The Khorasani style (from the late 7th until the end of the 10th century CE), e.g. Jameh Mosque of Nain and Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, The Razi style (from the 11th century to the Mongol invasion period) which includes the methods and devices of the following periods: Samanid period, e.g. Samanid Mausoleum, Ziyarid period, e.g. Gonbad-e Qabus, Seljuk period, e.g. Kharraqan towers, The Azari style (from the late 13th century to the appearance of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century), e.g. Soltaniyeh, Arg of Tabriz, Jameh Mosque of Varamin, Goharshad Mosque, Bibi-Khanym Mosque in Samarkand, tomb of Abdas-Samad, Gur-e Amir, Jameh Mosque of Yazd The Isfahani style spanning through the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar eras starting from the 16th century onward, e.g. Chehel Sotoun, Ali Qapu, Agha Bozorg Mosque, Shah Mosque, Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque in Naqsh-e Jahan Square.

Pre-Islamic architecture

Hatra was a religious and trading center. Today it is a World Heritage Site, protected by UNESCO. The pre-Islamic styles draw on 3000 to 4000 years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian plateau. The post-Islamic architecture of Iran, in turn, draws ideas from its pre-Islamic predecessor. It features geometrical and repetitive forms, as well as surfaces that are richly decorated with glazed tiles, carved stucco, patterned brickwork, floral motifs, and calligraphy.

Iran is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization.

Each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that spread to other cultures. Although Iran has suffered its share of destruction, including Alexander the Great's decision to burn Persepolis, there are sufficient remains to form a picture of its classical architecture.

The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials were brought in from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Pasargadae set the standard: its city was laid out in an extensive park with bridges, gardens, colonnaded palaces and open column pavilions. Pasargadae along with Susa and Persepolis expressed the authority of 'The King of Kings', with the staircases of the latter recording in relief sculpture the vast extent of the imperial frontier.

With the emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids new forms appeared. Parthian innovations fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers, solid masonry domes and tall columns. This influence was to remain for years to come.

For example, the roundness of the city of Baghdad in the Abbasid era, points to its Persian precedents, such as Firouzabad in Fars. Al-Mansur hired two designers to plan the city's design: Naubakht, a former Persian Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city should be astrologically significant, and Mashallah ibn Athari, a former Jew from Khorasan.

Persian contributions to the art of building can be seen at the ruins of Persepolis, Ctesiphon, Tepe Sialk, Pasargadae, Firouzabad, and Arg-e Bam. The Sassanid castle at Derbent, Dagestan (now part of Russia), is an example of Sassanid Iranian architecture. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2003.

Sub-periods According to Mohammad Karim Pirnia, the ancient architecture of Iran can be divided into the following periods.

Pre-Parsian style The pre-Parsian style (New Persian:شیوه معماری پیش از پارسی) is a sub-style of architecture (or "zeer-sabk") when categorizing the history of Persian/Iranian architectural development. This architectural style flourished in the Iranian Plateau until the eighth century BC, during the era of the Median Empire. It is often classified as a subcategory of Parsian architecture.Sabk Shenasi Mi'mari Irani (Study of styles in Iranian architecture), M. Karim Pirnia. 2005. pp.40-51 The oldest remains of the architectural landmarks in this style are the Teppe Zagheh, near Qazvin. Other extant examples of this style are Chogha Zanbil, Tepe Sialk, Shahr-e Sukhteh, and Ecbatana. Elamite and proto-Elamite buildings among others, are covered within this stylistic subcategory as well.

Parsian style The "Persian style" (New Persian:شیوه معماری پارسی) is a style of architecture ("sabk") defined by Mohammad Karim Pirnia when categorizing the history of Persian/Iranian architectural development. Although Median and Achaemenid architecture fall under this classification, pre Achaemenid architecture is also considered a sub category. This style of architecture flourished from eighth century BCE from the time of the Median Empire, through the Achaemenid empire, to the arrival of Alexander the Great in the third century BCEFallāḥʹfar, Saʻīd (سعید فلاح‌فر). The Dictionary of Iranian Traditional Architectural Terms (Farhang-i vāzhahʹhā-yi miʻmārī-i sunnatī-i Īrān فرهنگ واژه‌های معماری سنتی ایران). Kamyab Publications (انتشارات کامیاب). Kāvushʹpardāz. 2000, 2010. Tehran. US Library of Congress LCCN Permalink: http://lccn.loc.gov/2010342544 pp.44

Parthian style

This architectural style includes designs from the Seleucid (310–140 BCE), Parthian (247 BCE – 224 CE), and Sassanid (224–651 CE) eras, reaching its apex of development in the Sassanid period. Examples of this style are Qal'eh Dokhtar, the royal compounds at Nisa, Anahita Temple, Khorheh, Hatra, the Taq Kasra, Bishapur, and the Palace of Ardashir in Ardeshir Khwarreh (Firuzabad).p.92-93 & p.94-129

Islamic architecture

Early Islamic period (7th–9th centuries)