Anti-Mongolian sentiment, anti-Mongol sentiment, Mongolophobia or anti-Mongolianism is the term used to describe, in general, the prejudice against or hatred toward Mongolia or Mongols. It has been built throughout history by the expansions of the Mongol Empire and its divisions such as the Golden Horde, being prevalently made by grievancies with countries that were attacked or conquered in said times, which by extent lists most of Europe.
Russia Russian Empire The Tsardom of Russia, the Russian Empire, and the Soviet Union performed many atrocities against the MongolsMongolian Historical Society, "The History of Mongolia", Ulaanbaatar, 2010 (assimilate, reduce the population, extinguish the language, culture, tradition, history, religion and ethnic identity). During the existence of the Russian Empire, Tsar Peter the Great said: "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land".L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995 The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations (World War I and other wars).N.N. Mikheyev, "The Kalmyks and Buryats in the Wars of Russia", Moscow, 2002
Soviet Union
Soviet Russian scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they were not Mongols during the 20th century (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during the rebellion of 1927 and around one-third of Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.Войны ХХ века и их жертвы /тысяч человек/ (Russian)Буриад-Монголын үндэстний хөдөлгөөн, тулгамдсан асуудлууд (Mongolian) In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and the Buryat's state fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but Russia refused. 71–93,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine.XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан (Mongolian) The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Soviet Union at the time, said "We are carrying out a wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful".Халимагийн эмгэнэлт түүхээс (Mongolian) In March 1927, the Soviet government deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia and Karelia. The Kalmyks founded sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930. The Oirat State created a military and clashed with the Soviet Red Army. 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in the Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirat State was destroyed by the Red Army in 1930.
The Soviet Union deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of (97–98,000) Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching Kalmyk language during their time in Siberia. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide.
China Imperial China Qing genocide of Dzungars
The Dzungar Mongols lived in an area that stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang), and were the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century.Chapters 3–7 of describe the rise and fall of the Dzungar Khanate and its relations with other Mongol tribes, the Qing dynasty, and the Russian Empire. After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912) in the late 1750s.
Clarke argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people." After the Qianlong Emperor led Qing forces to victory over the Dzungar Oirat (Western) Mongols in 1755, he originally was going to split the Dzungar Khanates into four tribes headed by four Khans. The Khoit tribe was to have the Dzungar leader Amursana as its Khan. Amursana rejected the Qing arrangement and rebelled since he wanted to be leader of a united Dzungar nation. The Qianlong Emperor then issued his orders for the genocide and eradication of the entire Dzungar nation and name, Qing Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha (Eastern) Mongols enslaved Dzungar women and children while slaying the other Dzungars.Millward 2007, p. 95.
The Qianlong Emperor then ordered the genocide of the Dzungars, moving the remaining Dzungar people to the mainland and ordering the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou, and divided their wives and children to Qing forces, which were made out of Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols.大清高宗純皇帝實錄, 乾隆二十四年平定準噶爾方略 Qing scholar Wei Yuan estimated the total population of Dzungars before the fall at 600,000 people or 200,000 households. Oirat officer Saaral betrayed and battled against the Oirats. In a widely citeded. Starr 2004, p. 54. account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army of Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousand li except those of the surrendered.Wei Yuan, 聖武記 Military history of the Qing dynasty, vol.4. "計數十萬戶中，先痘死者十之四，繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二，卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外，至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶，編設佐領昂吉，此外數千里間，無瓦剌一氊帳。" During this war Kazakhs attacked dispersed Oirats and Altays. Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars (especially Choros, Olot, Khoid, Baatud and Zakhchin) were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence". The Dzungar genocide was completed by a combination of a smallpox epidemic and the direct slaughter of Dzungars by Qing forces made out of Manchu Bannermen and (Khalkha) Mongols.
Anti-Dzungar Uyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Dzungar rule. Uyghur leaders like Emin Khoja were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Dzungar campaign. The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Dzungars and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Dzungars themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Dzungar rule at the hands of Tsewang Araptan.Kim 2008, p. 139.
It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of the Dzungars after the mass slayings of nearly a million Dzungars.Tyler 2004, p. 55. Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor,Perdue 2009, p. 285. Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide". Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars, Dr. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,Dr. Mark Levene , Southampton University, see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09. has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".
The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungars made the Qing-sponsored settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria possible, since the land was now devoid of Dzungars. The Dzungarian basin, which used to be inhabited by Dzungars is currently inhabited by Kazakhs.Tyler 2004, p. 4. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Dzungar Oirat Mongols in the region, with one-third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are, while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.ed. Starr 2004, p. 243. In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.Millward 1998, p. 102. The Qing were the ones who unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic situation.Liu & Faure 1996, p. 71.
The depopulation of northern Xinjiang after the Buddhist Oirats were slaughtered, led to the Qing settling Manchu, Sibo (Xibe), Daurs (a sub-Mongolic people), Solons, Han Chinese, Hui Muslims, and Turkic Muslim Taranchis in the north, with Han Chinese and Hui migrants making up the greatest number of settlers. Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist Öölöd (Dzungars) by the Qing which led to the promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, it was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".Liu & Faure 1996, p. 72. Xinjiang was a unified defined geographic identity created and developed by the Qing. It was the Qing who led to Turkic Muslim power in the region increasing since the Mongol power was crushed by the Qing while Turkic Muslim culture and identity were tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.Liu & Faure 1996, p. 76.