Celtiberian language

Celtiberian or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic is an extinct Indo-European language of the Celtic branch spoken by the Celtiberians in an area of the Iberian Peninsula between the headwaters of the Douro, Tagus, Júcar, and Turia rivers and the Ebro river, i.e. the region around the Iberian System. The language is directly attested in nearly 200 inscriptions and 300 smaller records, dated from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, mainly in Celtiberian script, but also in the Latin alphabet. The longest extant Celtiberian inscriptions are those on the Botorrita plaques, three bronze plaques from Botorrita near Zaragoza dating to the early 1st century BC, labeled Botorrita I, III, and IV (Botorrita II is in Latin). Shorter and more fragmentary is the Novallas bronze tablet.Francisco Beltrán Lloris, Carlos Jordán Cólera, Borja Díaz Ariño1, and Ignacio Simón Cornago. Journal of Roman Archaeology 34 (2021), 713–733 doi:10.1017/S1047759421000635

Classification According to the P/Q Celtic hypothesis, and like its Iberian relative Gallaecian, Celtiberian is classified as a Q Celtic language, putting it in the same category as Goidelic and not P-Celtic like Gaulish or Brittonic.

According to the Insular/Continental Celtic hypothesis, Celtiberian and Gaulish are sometimes grouped together as Continental Celtic languages, but this grouping is paraphyletic: no evidence suggests that the two shared any common innovation separately from Insular Celtic. According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic stated: "Celtiberian...is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early."Ranko Matasovic 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Leiden: Brill, 2009, p. 13 https://archive.org/stream/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic/Etymological%20Dictionary%20of%20Proto-Celtic_djvu.txt

Celtiberian has a fully inflected relative pronoun ios (as does, for instance, Ancient Greek), an ancient feature that was not preserved by the other Celtic languages, and the particles 'and' < (cf. Latin , Attic Greek ), 'nor' < (cf. Latin ), 'also, as well' < (cf. Lat. , Gaulish , OIr. 'again'), and ve "or" (cf. Latin enclitic , Attic Greek ē < Proto-Greek *ē-we). As in Welsh, there is an s-subjunctive; e.g., "he shall take" (Old Irish ), , . Compare Umbrian ferest "he/she/it shall make" or Ancient Greek (aorist subj.) / (future ind.) "(that) he/she/it shall show".

History During the first half of 1st millennium BC, Q-Celtic speaking people invaded Iberian Peninsula, populated by Iberians, potentially related to the Basques, Tartessians and pre-Celtic Indo-European speaking peoples.Stifter, David (2012) Old Celtic Languages (PDF) As early as 3d century BC, Celtiberians adapted and developed the Celtiberian script; it was based on the Northeastern Iberian variant, influenced by Greek and Phoenician alphabets, that was used for writing in Iberian and Basque languages.

The last texts in Celtiberian (like Peñalba de Villastar) were written in the late 1st century AD and were influenced by Latin. Soon after, the written records disappear and the language is believed to have gone extinct before or around 200 AD.

Phonology

Celtiberian shows the characteristic sound changes of Celtic languages, such as:

PIE consonants

PIE *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ > b, d, g: Loss of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspiration. Celtib. and Gaulish [Gaul.] placename element 'hill, town, akro-polis' < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-eh₂. 'they are watered' < *nebʰ-i-nt-or. 'he must build' < *dʰingʰ-bī-tōd; 'to build around > to enclose' < *h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-o-mn-ei; cf. Latin [Lat.] 'to build, shape' < *dʰingʰ-o, Old Irish (OIr.) 'erect, build up' < *kom-ups-dʰingʰ-o; '(that someone) builds around > enclose' < *h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti. 'mandatory, required' < *gʰor-ti-ka; cf. Lat. 'exhort' < *ex-gʰor-to). However, since the meaning in Celtiberian cannot be determined with certainty, this root may be related to OIr. "field" (< PIE *ghо̄rdh-s, gen. *ghrdh-os ‘enclosure, garden, pen') and its many IE cognates.Matasovic, R. Etymological Dictionary Of Proto-Celtic Brill, 2009, pp. 264-265 'daughter' < *dʰugh₂tēr, 'grandson, son of the daughter''; cf. Common Celtic (ComCelt.) . 'mine (excavation)' < *bʰedʰ-yo 'that which is pierced'. PIE *kʷ: Celtiberian preserved the PIE voiceless labiovelar kʷ (hence Q-Celtic), a development also observed in Archaic Irish and Latin. On the contrary, Brythonic and Gaulish (P-Celtic) changed kʷ to p, a change also seen in some dialects of Ancient Greek and some Italic branches like P-Italic. E.g., -kue 'and' < *kʷe, Lat. -que, Osco-Umbrian -pe 'and', neip 'and not, neither' < *ne-kʷe. PIE *ḱw > ku: horse (in the name Ekualakos) < *h₁eḱw-ālo; cf. Middle Welsh (MW) foal' < *epālo, Lat. 'horse', OIr. 'horse' < *eko´- < *h₁eḱwo-, Old Breton (OBret) eb < *epo- < *h₁eḱwo-. 'dog' < *kuu < *kwōn, in , 'hound-man, male hound/wolf, werewolf'; cf. OIr. , Old Welsh (OW) Gurcí < *Virokū 'idem'.Lambert, Pierre-Yves. "Francisco Villar, M.a Pilar Fernandez Álvarez, ed. Religión, lengua y cultura prerromanas de Hispania, Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2001 (Acta Salmanticensia, Estudios Filológicos, 283). = Actas del VIII Coloquio internacional sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Península Ibérica (11-14 mai 1999, Salamanque)". In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 35, 2003. p. 393. [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2003_num_35_1_2242_t1_0386_0000_2] PIE *gʷ > b: bindis 'legal agent' < *gʷiHm-diks; cf. Lat. vindex 'defender'.De Bernardo, P. "La gramática celtibérica del bronce de Botorrita. Nuevos Resultados". In Palaeohispanica 9 (2009), pp. 683-699. 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)ito; cf. OIr. bòthar 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)itro),Schmidt, K. H. "How to define celtiberian archaims?". in Palaeohispanica 10 (2010), pp. 479-487. boustom 'cowshed' < *gʷow-sto. PIE *gʷʰ > gu: < *gʷʰedʰ-y-ont 'imploring, pleading'; cf. ComCelt. 'ask, plead, pray', OIr. , W. . PIE *p > *φ > ∅: loss of PIE , e.g. (Celtib., OIr., and OBret) vs. Lat. and Sanskrit [Skt. ]. acc. pl. fem. 'six feet, unit of measure' (< *φodians < *pod-y-ans *sweks); 'stone building' < *pl̥-ya; cf. OIr. 'boulder'. 'higher' < *uφamos < *up-m̥os. 'remainder, rest' < *uper-n̥tiyo; cf. Lat. . Toponym (now Ledaña) 'broad place' < *pl̥th2-ny-a.

However, it is possible that, as in other Celtic languages, *p before -l- was voiced to b, if the spelling of the place name konbouto (Roman Conplutum) represents /konblouto/.Wodtko, D.S. "An outline of Celtiberian grammar." Freiburg 2003, p. 8

Final *-m is preserved in Celtiberian (and Lepontic), a further indication of these dialects' conservatism. It is generally fronted to -n in Gaulish (exceptional cases, for instance on the Larzac tablet, are probably due to influence from Latin): boustom "stable."Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p. 768 Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17

Consonant clusters

PIE *mn > un: as in Lepontic, Brythonic, and Gaulish, but not Old Irish and seemingly not Galatian. 'neighbour' < *kom-ness-o < *kom-nedʰ-to; cf. OIr. 'neighbour' < *kom-nedʰ-t-m̥o. PIE *pn > un: < *kleun-y-a < *kleup-ni 'meadow'; cf. OIr. 'meadow' < *klouni). However, in Latin, *pn > mn: 'damage' < *dHp-no. PIE *pl > bl as in other Celtic languages, suggested by the placename konbouto (Roman Conplutum) if that represents /konblouto/. PIE *nm > lm: Only in Celtiberian: < *men-mōn 'intelligence', 'gifted with mind' < *men-mn̥-tyo; cf. OIr. 'mind' < *men-mn̥. Also occurs in modern Spanish: 'soul' < *anma < Lat. , Asturian galmu 'step' < Celt. . PIE *ps > *ss / s: 'he must excavate (lit. up/over-dig)' < *ups-ad-bʰiH-tōd, * < *useziu < *ups-ed-yō 'highest'. The Latin ethnic name (Celtib. contesikum) recalls the proper name 'warm-hearted, friendly' < *kom-tep-so, cf. OIr. 'warm' > *tep-so. In Latin epigraphy, this sound is transcribed with gemination: 'of the Usseitici' < *Usseito < *upse-tyo. However, in Gaulish and Brythonic, *ps > *x; cf. Gaul. Uxama, MW uchel, 'one six'. PIE *pt > *tt / t: 'seventh' < *septmo-to. However, in Gaulish and Insular Celtic, *pt > x: sextameto 'seventh', O.Ir. (< *septmo-e-to). PIE *gs > *ks > *ss / s: sues 'six' < *sweks. 'south/right-hand city' (Celts oriented themselves looking east) < *dekso-*bʰr̥ǵʰa; ** 'strong town' < *h₂ner-to-*bʰr̥ǵʰs. es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs; cf. Lat. ex-, ComCelt. , OIr. . In Latin epigraphy, this sound is transcribed with gemination: < *sweks- 'sixth city'; cf. Lat. .De Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia 2009 "El nombre -¿céltico?- de la Pintia vaccea". BSAA Arqueología Nº. 75, (243-256). < *deks-ika. However, in Gaulish, *ks > *x: Dexivates. PIE *gt > *kt > *tt / t: 'constructions, buildings' < *dʰigʰ-tas (= Lat. ). 'load' < *louttu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu, 'it is permitted', 'it is not permitted' < *l(e)ik-to; cf. Lat. < *lik-e-to. However, in Common Celtic, *kt > *xt: luxtu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu; cf. OIr. . 'right-born, lawful' < *h₃reg-tō-genos, Gaul. Rextugenos. In Latin epigraphy, this sound is transcribed with gemination: 'noble' < *brikto < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-to. 'fruitful' < *bruktio < *bʰruHǵ-t-y-o; cf. Latin 'profitable'. PIE *st > *st: as opposed to Gaulish, Irish and Welsh, where the change was *st > ss. This preservation of the PIE cluster *st is another indication of the phonological conservatism of Celtiberian. 'excellent' < * 'excellence' < *gus-tu; cf. OIr. 'excellence', < *viro-gussu, Gaul. gussu (Lezoux Plate, line 7).

Vowels

PIE *e, *h₁e > e: 'in Togotis' < *h₁en-i; cf. Lat. in, OIr. 'into, in'. 'inside this territory'. es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs; cf. Lat. ex-, ComCelt. , OIr. . 'not enclosed, open', lit. 'unfenced' < *h₁eǵʰs-*h₂enk-yos. 'settlement, town'; 'conventus, capital' < *kom-treb-ya; cf. OIr. , W. tref 'settlement'. horse < *h₁ekw-os, 'horseman'. PIE *h₂e > a: 'fenced, enclosed' < *h₂enk-yos. 'strong' < *h₂ep-lō 'strength'. 'valid, firm' < *h₂ewg-u, adj. 'strong, firm, valid'. PIE *o, *Ho > o: (dat.sing.) 'for the last' < *olzo 'last' < *h₂ol-tyo, cf. Lat. < *h₂ol-t-m̥o, OIr. 'master poet' < *φolnomū < *polh₁-no-mṓ). 'mountain' < *h₂ok-r-i; cf. Lat. 'mountain', OIr. 'edge' < *h₂ok-r-i. 'memory' < *monī-mā < *mon-eye-mā. PIE *eh₁ > ē > ī?. This Celtic reflex isn't well attested in Celtiberian. e.g. IE meaning "king, ruler" vs. Celtiberian -reiKis, Gaulish -rix, British rix, Old Irish , Old Welsh, Old Breton ri meaning "king". In any case, the maintenance of PIE ē = ē is well attested in 'he did' < *deked < *dʰeh₁k-et, identical to Latin fecit. PIE *eh₂ > ā: 'to burn' < *deh₂u-nei; cf. OIr. 'burn' < *deh₂u-to-. 'enough money, a considerable amount of money' < *sātio < *seh₂t-yo, ComCelt. 'sufficiency', cf. OIr. . kār 'friendship' < *keh₂r; cf. Lat. cārus 'dear' < *keh₂r-os, Ir. 'friend', W. caru 'love' < *kh₂r-os. PIE *eh₃, *oH > a/u: Celt. in final syllables, in non-final syllables; e.g.: 'he must give' < . 'sentence' < *dʰoh₁m-eh₂ 'put, dispose'; cf. OIr. 'gift, skill, poem', Germanic dōma < *dʰoh₁m-o 'verdict, sentence'. PIE *Hw- > w-: uta 'conj. and, prep. besides' < *h₂w-ta, 'or, and'; cf. Umb. ute 'or', Lat. aut 'or' < *h₂ew-ti.