Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through poverty, and simple living,Randall Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change, Harvard University Press, , p. 204. often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world or continue to be part of their society, but typically adopt a frugal lifestyle, characterized by the renunciation of material possessions and physical pleasures, and also spend time fasting while concentrating on religion, prayer, or meditation. Some individuals have also attempted an ascetic lifestyle to free themselves from addictions to things such as alcohol, smoking, drugs, sex, pornography, lavish food, and entertainment.
Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious and philosophical traditions, most notably among Ancient Greek philosophical schools (Epicureanism, Cynicism, Stoicism, and Pythagoreanism), Indian religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism), Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, Islam), and contemporary practices continue amongst some of their followers. Practitioners abandon sensual pleasures and lead an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation, or spirituality. Many ascetics believe the action of purifying the body helps to purify the body and soul, and that in doing so, they will obtain a greater connection with the Divine or find inner peace. This may take the form of rituals, the renunciation of wealth and sensual pleasures, or self-mortification in order to pursue spiritual goals.
However, ascetics maintain that self-imposed constraints bring them greater freedom in various areas of their lives, such as increased clarity of thought and the ability to resist potentially destructive temptations. Asceticism is seen in some ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, and the frugal is plenty. Inversely, several ancient religious traditions, such as Zoroastrianism, Ancient Egyptian religion,Wilson, John A. (1969). "Egyptian Secular Songs and Poems". Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 467. the Dionysian Mysteries, and vāmācāra (left-handed Hindu Tantrism), abstain from ascetic practices and focus on various types of good deeds in the world and the importance of family life.
Etymology and meaning The adjective "ascetic" derives from the ancient Greek term , which means "training" or "exercise". The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the physical training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices used in many major religious traditions, in varying degrees, to attain redemption and higher spirituality.
Edward Cuthbert Butler classified asceticism into natural and unnatural forms:
"Natural asceticism" involves a lifestyle that reduces material aspects of life to the utmost simplicity and to a minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on a floor or in caves, and eating a simple, minimal amount of food. Natural asceticism, stated Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer. "Unnatural asceticism", in contrast, covers practices that go further, including body mortification, punishing one's own flesh, and habitual self-infliction of pain, such as sleeping on a bed of nails.
Religion Self-discipline, abstinence, and renunciation of material goods and worldly concerns, to various degrees, are parts of religious practice within many religious and spiritual traditions. Ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, and fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis/vairagis, siddhas, goswamis, and yogis in Indian religions.
Abrahamic religions Bahá'í Faith
In the Baháʼí Faith, according to Shoghi Effendi, the maintenance of a high standard of moral conduct is neither to be associated nor confused with any form of extreme asceticism, nor of excessive and bigoted puritanism. The religious standard set by Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, seeks under no circumstances to deny anyone the legitimate right and privilege to derive the fullest advantage and benefit from the manifold joys, beauties, and pleasures with which the world has been so plentifully enriched by God, who Baháʼís regard as an all-loving creator.
Christianity
Notable Christian authors of Late Antiquity such as Origen, Jerome, John Chrysostom, and Augustine of Hippo, interpreted meanings of the Christian Bible within a highly asceticized religious environment. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus, the twelve apostles, and Paul the Apostle. The Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of the Essenes, who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on an ascetic religious life was evident in both early Christian writings (e.g., the Philokalia) and practices (e.g., Hesychasm). Christian saints, including Paul the Hermit, Simeon Stylites, David of Wales, John of Damascus, Peter Waldo, Tamar of Georgia, and Francis of Assisi, practiced asceticism as well.
According to British historian and Roman Catholic theologian Richard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to early Judaism, not to Ancient Greek asceticism. Some of the ascetic thought in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, has roots in Ancient Greek philosophy. Virtuous living is often considered incompatible with a strong craving for bodily pleasures driven by desire and passion. In ancient theology, morality was typically viewed not merely as a balance between right and wrong, but as a form of spiritual transformation. In this perspective, simplicity is regarded as sufficient, inner bliss is valued, and frugality is seen as abundant.
Middle Eastern deserts were at one time inhabited by thousands of male and female Christian ascetics, hermits, and anchorites,For a study of the continuation of this early tradition in the Middle Ages, see Marina Miladinov, Margins of Solitude: Eremitism in Central Europe between East and West (Zagreb: Leykam International, 2008). including Anthony the Great ( St. Anthony of the Desert), Mary of Egypt, and Simeon Stylites, collectively known as the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavras was formed on Mount Athos, according Eastern Orthodox tradition. This became the most important center of Orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained significant centers.
Sexual abstinence, as practiced by Encratites sect of Christianity, for example, was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. Other ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, and fasting, as well as ethical practices like humility, compassion, meditation, patience, and prayer.Elizabeth A. Clark. Reading Renunciation: Asceticism and Scripture in Early Christianity. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1999. Evidence of extreme asceticism in Christianity appears in second-century texts and thereafter in both Eastern and Western Christian traditions, including the practices of chaining one's body to rocks, eating only grass, praying seated on a pillar in the elements (e.g., the monk Simeon Stylites, solitary confinement inside a cell, abandoning personal hygiene and adopting lifestyle of a beast, mortification of the flesh, and voluntary suffering. Nevertheless, said practices were often rejected as beyond acceptable by ascetics like Barsanuphius of Gaza and John the Prophet. Ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption.
The ascetic literature of early Christianity was influenced by pagan Greek philosophical traditions, especially those of Plato and Aristotle, which sought the perfect spiritual way of life. According to Clement of Alexandria, philosophy and scriptures can be seen as "double expressions of one pattern of knowledge". According to Evagrius, "body and the soul are there to help the intellect and not to hinder it". Evagrius Ponticus (345–399 CE) was a highly educated monastic teacher who produced a large theological body of work, mainly ascetic, including the Gnostikos (, , "learned", from , , "knowledge"), also known as The Gnostic: To the One Made Worthy of Gnosis. The Gnostikos is the second volume of a trilogy containing the Praktikos, intended for young monks seeking apatheia (i.e., "a state of calm which is the prerequisite for love and knowledge"), which would purify their intellect and make it impassible, revealing the truth hidden in every being. The third book, Kephalaia Gnostika, was meant for meditation by advanced monks. Those writings made him one of the most recognized ascetic teachers and scriptural interpreters of his time, which included Clement of Alexandria and Origen.
Between the Middle Ages and the Protestant Reformation, Christian asceticism became more focused on communal life of studying and translating the Bible, prayer, preaching the Gospel, and other spiritual practices. The proto-Protestant Lollards and Waldensians originated as ascetic lay movements within medieval Western Christianity, and both were persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church throughout several centuries. Notable examples of Protestant asceticism are the Anabaptist Churches (Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites, Schwarzenau Brethren), Quakers, and Shakers, which espouse their pacifist ethics and separation from the world by simple living, which includes plain dressing and preference for antiquated technology.
Certain Christian monasteries and convents, such as the Evangelical-Lutheran Sisters of the Holy Spirit at Alsike Convent, allow Christians to commit a certain period of time (such as the summer period) to living as a hermit in a hermitage. While living as a hermit, individuals reside in desolated cabins that do not contain running water, and focus on prayer (particularly the Divine Office). In the Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican traditions of Christianity, individuals may be called to the lifetime vocation of being a hermit or solitary.
Islam
The Arabic term for "asceticism" is zuhd. Accorting to some traditions the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his immediate followers practiced asceticism. However, contemporary mainstream Islam has not had a tradition of asceticism, but its Sufi groupsThe World's Muslims: Religious Affiliations , Pew Research (2012). have cherished their own ascetic tradition for several centuries. Islamic literary sources and historians report that during the early Muslim conquests of the Middle East and North Africa (7th–10th centuries), some of the Muslim warriors guarding the frontier settlements were also ascetics; numerous historical accounts also report of some Christian monks that apostatized from Christianity, converted to Islam, and joined the jihad, as well as of several Muslim warriors that repudiated Islam, converted to Christianity, and became Christian monks. Monasticism is forbidden in Islam. Scholars in the field of Islamic studies have argued that asceticism (zuhd) served as a precursor to the later doctrinal formations of Sufis that began to emerge in the tenth century through the works of individuals such as al-Junayd, al-Qushayrī, al-Sarrāj, and al-Hujwīrī, among others.