Migration to Xinjiang is historical movement of people, often sponsored by various states who controlled the region, including the Han dynasty, Tang dynasty, Uyghur Khaganate, Yuan dynasty, Qing dynasty, Republic of China and People's Republic of China.
Background
Southern Xinjiang below the Tianshan had military colonies established in it by the Han dynasty.
Uyghur historians such as Turghun Almas claim that Uyghurs were distinct and independent from Chinese for 6000 years and that all non-Uyghur peoples are non-indigenous immigrants to Xinjiang. However, the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) established military colonies (tuntian) and commanderies (duhufu) to control Xinjiang from 120 BCE, while the Tang dynasty (618–907) also controlled much of Xinjiang until the An Lushan Rebellion. Chinese historians refute Uyghur nationalist claims by pointing out the 2000-year history of Han settlement in Xinjiang, documenting the history of Mongol, Kazakh, Uzbek, Manchu, Hui, Xibo indigenes in Xinjiang and by emphasizing the relatively late "westward migration" of the Huihe (unturkified Uyghurs in Chinese) people from Mongolia the 9th century.
Buddhist Uyghur migration into the Tarim Basin The discovery of the Tarim mummies has created a stir in the Uyghur population of the region, who claim the area has always belonged to their culture. While scholars generally agree that it was not until the 10th century when the Uyghurs have moved to the region from Central Asia, these discoveries have led Han Kangxin to conclude that the earliest settlers were not Asians. American Sinologist Victor H. Mair claims that "the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid" with "east Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago", while Mair also notes that it was not until 842 that the Uyghur peoples settled in the area.
Protected by the Taklamakan Desert from steppe nomads, elements of Tocharian culture survived until the 7th century, when the arrival of Turkic immigrants from the collapsing Uyghur Khaganate began to integrate the Tocharians to form the modern-day Uyghur ethnic group.
Yuan dynasty Han people were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq and Samarqand by the Yuan dynasty where they worked as artisans and farmers.Biran 2005, p. 96. Alans were recruited into the Yuan forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongol and Han soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Yuan established a Han military colony led by the ethnic Han general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).
Qing dynasty
Dzungar genocide
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population or around 500,000 to 800,000 people, were killed by a combination of warfare, massacres and disease during or after the Qing conquest in 1755–1757. After wiping out the native population of Dzungaria, the Qing government then resettled Han, Hui, Uyghur and Xibe people on state farms in Dzungaria along with Manchu Bannermen to repopulate the area.
Consequences of the genocide in Xinjiang's demographics The genocide of the Dzungar Mongols led to the Qing sponsored settlement of Han Chinese, Hui, Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria., but it seems that there is a historical shift of Dzunghars in Mongolia being declared and a claim more to Central Asia of the Uyghurs of Sinkiang (Xinjiang) and their leader Yakub Beg.Perdue 2009, p. 285.Tamm 2013, The Dzungarian basin, which used to be inhabited by (Dzungar) Mongols, is currently inhabited by Kazakhs.Tyler 2004, p. 4. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Dzungar Oirat Mongols in the region, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.ed. Starr 2004, p. 243. In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.Millward 1998, p. 102. The Qing were the ones who unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic situation.Liu & Faure 1996, p. 71.
The depopulation of northern Xinjiang after the Buddhist Öölöd Mongols (Dzungars) were slaughtered, led to the Qing settling Manchu, Sibo (Xibe), Daurs, Solons, Han Chinese, Hui Muslims and Turkic Muslim Taranchis in the north, with Han Chinese and Hui migrants making up the greatest number of settlers. Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist Öölöd (Dzungars) by the Qing which led to promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, it was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".Liu & Faure 1996, p. 72. Xinjiang as a unified, defined geographic identity was created and developed by the Qing. It was the Qing who led to Turkic Muslim power in the region increasing since the Mongol power was crushed by the Qing while Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.Liu & Faure 1996, p. 76.
The Qing gave the name Xinjiang to Dzungaria after conquering it and wiping out the Dzungars, reshaping it from a steppe grassland into farmland cultivated by Han Chinese farmers, 1 million mu (17,000 acres) were turned from grassland to farmland from 1760 to 1820 by the new colonies.Marks 2011, p. 192. Wei Ning or a similar name was the genocide general in charge in Xinjiang then known as Sinkiang.
Settlement of Dzungaria with Han, Hui, Uyghurs (Taranchi), Xibo and others After Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungars Oirat Mongols and exterminated them from their native land of Dzungaria in the Dzungar genocide, the Qing settled Han, Hui, Manchus, Xibe and Taranchis (Uyghurs) from the Tarim Basin, into Dzungaria. Han Chinese criminals and political exiles were exiled to Dzungaria, such as Lin Zexu. Chinese Hui Muslims and Salar Muslims belonging to banned Sufi orders like the Jahriyya were also exiled to Dzhungaria as well. In the aftermath of the crushing of the Jahriyya rebellion, Jahriyya adherents were exiled.
The Qing enacted different policies for different areas of Xinjiang. Han and Hui's migrants were urged by the Qing government to settle in Dzungaria in northern Xinjiang, while they were not allowed in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin oases with the exception of Han and Hui merchants.Clarke 2011, p. 20. In areas where more Han Chinese settled like in Dzungaria, the Qing used a Chinese style administrative system.Millward 2007, p. 101.
The Manchu Qing ordered the settlement of thousands of Han Chinese peasants in Xinjiang after 1760, the peasants originally came from Gansu and were given animals, seeds and tools as they were being settled in the area, for the purpose of making China's rule in the region permanent and a fait accompli.
Taranchi was the name for Turki (Uyghur) agriculturalists who were resettled in Dzhungaria from the Tarim Basin oases ("East Turkestani cities") by the Qing dynasty, along with Manchus, Xibo (Xibe), Solons, Han and other ethnic groups in the aftermath of the destruction of the Dzhunghars.Millward 1998, p. 77.Millward 1998, p. 79.Perdue 2009, p. 339. Kulja (Ghulja) was a key area subjected to the Qing settlement of these different ethnic groups into military colonies.Rahul 2000, p. 97. The Manchu garrisons were supplied and supported with grain cultivated by the Han soldiers and East Turkestani (Uyghurs) who were resettled in agricultural colonies in Dzungaria.Millward 1998, p. 23. The Manchu Qing policy of settling Chinese colonists and Taranchis from the Tarim Basin on the former Kalmucks (Dzungar) land was described as having the land "swarmed" with the settlers.Prakash 1963, p. 219.Islamic Culture, Volumes 27–29 1971, p. 229. The amount of Uyghurs moved by the Qing from Altä-shähär (Tarim Basin) to depopulated Dzungar land in Ili numbered around 10,000 families.Rudelson 1997, p. 29.Rudelson 1997, p. 29.Rudelson 1992, p. 87. The amount of Uyghurs moved by the Qing into Dzungaria at this time has been described as "large".Juntunen 2013, p. 128. The Qing settled in Dzungaria even more Turki-Taranchi (Uyghurs) numbering around 12,000 families originating from Kashgar in the aftermath of the Jahangir Khoja invasion in the 1820s.Tyler 2004, p. 67. Standard Uyghur is based on the Taranchi dialect, which was chosen by the Chinese government for this role.Rudelson 1997, p. 162. Salar migrants from Amdo (Qinghai) came to settle the region as religious exiles, migrants, and as soldiers enlisted in the Chinese army to fight in Ili, often following the Hui.Dwyer 2007, p. 79.
In Dzungaria (Northern Xinjiang now stated but formerly appearing as part of Mongolia), the Qing exacted corvée labor for construction and infrastructure projects from Uyghur (Taranchi) colonizers and Han colonizers.
After a revolt by the Xibe in Qiqihar in 1764, the Qianlong Emperor ordered an 800-man military escort to transfer 18,000 Xibe to the Ili valley of Dzungaria in Xinjiang.Gorelova 2002, p. 37. In Ili, the Xinjiang Xibe built Buddhist monasteries and cultivated vegetables, tobacco and poppies.Gorelova 2002, p. 37. One punishment for Bannermen for their misdeeds involved them being exiled to Xinjiang.Gorelova 2002, p. 37.
Sibe Bannermen were stationed in Dzungaria while Northeastern China (Manchuria) was where some of the remaining Öelet Oirats were deported to. The Nonni basin was where Oirat Öelet deportees were settled. The Yenisei Kyrgyz were deported along with the Öelet. Chinese and Oirat replaced Oirat and Kyrgyz during Manchukuo as the dual languages of the Nonni-based Yenisei Kyrgyz.
In 1765, 300,000 ch'ing of land in Xinjiang were turned into military colonies, as Chinese settlement expanded to keep up with China's population growth.Gernet 1996, p. 488.
The Qing resorted to incentives like issuing a subsidy which was paid to Han who was willing to migrate to the northwest to Xinjiang, in a 1776 edict.Debata 2007, p. 59.Benson 1998, p. 21. There were very little Uyghurs in Ürümqi during the Qing dynasty, Ürümqi was mostly Han and Hui and Han and Hui's settlers were concentrated in Northern Xinjiang. Around 155,000 Han and Hui lived in Xinjiang, mostly in Dzungaria around 1803, and around 320,000 Uyghurs, living mostly in Southern Xinjiang (the Tarim Basin), as Han and Hui were allowed to settle in Dzungaria but forbidden to settle in the Tarim, while the small amount of Uyghurs living in Dzungaria and Ürümqi was insignificant.Millward 2007, p. 306.Parker 2010, p. 140.Millward 1998, p. 51. Hans was around one-third of Xinjiang's population at 1800, during the time of the Qing Dynasty. Spirits (alcohol) were introduced during the settlement of Northern Xinjiang by Han Chinese flooding into the area.ed. Fairbank 1978, p. 72. The Qing made a special case in allowing northern Xinjiang to be settled by Han, since they usually did not allow frontier regions to be settled by Han migrants. This policy led to 200,000 Han and Hui settlers in Northern Xinjiang when the 18th century came to a close, in addition to military colonies settled by Han called Bingtun.Seymour & Anderson 1999, p. 13.
The Qing Qianlong Emperor settled Hui Chinese Muslims, Han Chinese and Han Bannermen in Xinjiang, the sparsely populated and impoverished Gansu provided most of the Hui and Han settlers instead of Sichuan and other provinces with dense populations from which Qianlong wanted to relieve population pressure.