The term political participation encompasses a broad range of activities through which individuals engage with political processes. These include the right to vote, contest elections, join political parties, engage in political activism, influence public policy, and cultivate political consciousness. For women, political participation is not only a matter of democratic right but also a key pathway to achieving gender equality and social empowerment.
Women in India vote, run for public office, and join political parties. Still, their overall participation remains lower than that of men. Political activism and voting are the strongest areas of women's political engagement. To combat gender inequality in politics, the Indian government has instituted reservations in seats in local governments.
During India's 2014 parliamentary general elections, the voter turnout for women was 65.63%, slightly lower than the 67.09% turnout for men. However, after a decade, in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, women's voter turnout slightly surpassed that of men, with 65.8% of women casting their votes compared to 65.6% of men. Although there has been progress worldwide, women continue to be underrepresented in political institutions. Deep-rooted social norms, structural inequalities, and restricted access to resources still pose significant obstacles to their full participation. India was ranked 143rd out of 183 nations. However, Indian women have achieved significant milestones, serving as President, Prime Minister, and Chief Ministers of various states. For decades, they have been elected to state legislative assemblies and the national parliament.
Constitutional rights of women The Constitution of India establishes a parliamentary system of government that guarantees all citizens the right to vote, hold office, free speech, freedom to assemble, and to form associations. The Constitution prohibits discrimination based on sex, class, human trafficking, and forced labour, and requires that elected positions be reserved for women.
The Government of India directs state and local governments to promote class and gender equality by including equal pay, free legal aid, humane working conditions, maternity relief, the rights to work and education, and raising the standard of living. Despite these directives, women's political participation has historically remained low.
Female Participation
Voting The movement for women's suffrage in India emerged in response to the national suffrage movement in the early 1900s. Under British colonial rule in India, the vast majority of both women and men did not have the right to vote. However, some provincial legislatures granted women the right to vote during this time.
According to British administration records, Madras became the first state to grant property-owning women the right to vote in 1921.Mithra, H.N. (2009). The Govt of India ACT 1919 Rules Thereunder and Govt Reports 1920, Further rights granted in response to the suffrage movement were also limited based on property ownership, as well as literacy in many cases, barring most of the population of India from voting.
In 1950, India enshrined universal adult suffrage in Article 326 of the Indian Constitution. India operates a parliamentary system with two houses: the Lok Sabha (lower house) and the Rajya Sabha (upper house). Rates of participation among women in 1962 were 46.63% for Lok Sabha elections and rose to a higher rate in 1984 of 58.60%. Male turnout during that same period was 63.31% in 1962 and 68.18% in 1984. The gap between male and female voters narrowed from 16.7% in 1962 to 1.5% in 2014. Government of India (2014)
Voter turnout for national elections since 1980 has steadily climbed (especially among women) but still hovers between 50–65%. State elections have seen a growing trend in women's participation, and in some cases, women's turnout has exceeded male turnout. India made electoral history in 2019 when voter turnout among women edged past that of men for the first time - 67.2% versus 67%.India's National Statistical Office report from 2023. Page 143. https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/reports_and_publication/statistical_publication/Women_Men/mw23/CompetePublication_WM2023.pdf During the next general elections, in 2024, voter turnout was nearly equal, 65.8% for men and 65.78% for women.ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA press release.
https://elections24.eci.gov.in/docs/BnS4hhbvK9.pdf
Increased participation is occurring in both rich and poor states in India. The Election Commission of India (ECI) has sought to increase voter turnout by cleaning up electoral rolls and removing missing or deceased members. Voter outreach has included door-to-door voter registration, and in the 2014 elections, voters were issued a photo ID with polling station information to increase voter turnout. ECI has sought to encourage women to register and participate in community activities through education and outreach on college and university campuses. Growing participation of women has also been attributed to the increase in security at the polling stations.
Increasingly, since 2020, political parties are competing for the female vote by promising direct, unconditional cash transfers to women who meet the income cap requirements. As of November 2024, India had spent the equivalent of 0.6% of its GDP on such cash transfer programs that have reached 134 million women, nearly one in five adult women in the country.Axis Bank Research report from November 12, 2024.https://research.axiscapital.co.in/researchPortal/Report/GetEmailReport/?code=795fe067-825c-4b5d-bffb-af6dab58776f In some states, these cash transfers to low-income women are putting pressure on the state budget, such as in Jharkhand, where the program accounts for 9.2% of the state's total expenditure.
Running for public office
India has a federal form of government, with devolved powers. The electorate votes to elect a national parliament as well as state assemblies. In 2012, India had a minimal percentage of 10.9% women elected representatives in the national parliament, which is, but relatively higher than Hungary (8.8%), Brazil (9.6%), China (9.1%), and Malaysia (9.8%).
A broader measure of political participation includes the number of women candidates who compete for elections and women in state assemblies. According to World Economic Forum's annual global gender gap index studies, which considers such a broader scale, India has ranked in top 20 countries worldwide for many years, with 9th-best in 2013 - a score reflecting more women's participation in India's political process than Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, France and United Kingdom.The Global Gender Gap Report 2012, World Economic Forum, Switzerland, page 16The Global Gender Gap Report 2013, World Economic Forum, Switzerland, Table 3b and 5, page 13 and 19
To remedy low participation of women electors, India in 1994 established quotas (reservations) through constitutional amendments (73rd and 74th) to reserve 33% of seats in local governments for women.
The Women's Reservation Bill (108th amendment) has been introduced in the national parliament to reserve 33% of Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha seats for women. This bill has yet to be passed by Lok Sabha and signed into law. A similar bill, Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, was passed by the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha in 2023, and is now pending assent by the female President of India, Droupadi Murmu.
The discussion of women's reservations began in the 1920s. It continued into the 1930s until a compromise was reached with Britain to allow women in urban areas to vote. Discussions about women's reservations were again introduced in 1974 by the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women in India, but India did not fully establish quotas in local government until 1994.
Local governing bodies in India are called Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), and one-third of seats and leadership positions must be reserved for women. States such as Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tripura, and Uttarakhand have increased reservations to 50%. The national government has also proposed to raise the level of reservations in PRIs to 50%.
Seats reserved for women are rotated to assure that each seat has an equal chance of being reserved. After the establishment of women's reservations, political participation went from 4-5% to 25-40% among women, and gave millions of women the opportunity to serve as leaders in local government. Odisha, an Indian state, established reservations before the 73rd amendment and they had 28,069 women elected in 1992 and 28,595 women in 1997. Class differences have manifested with poorer women gaining presence in panchayats, but women of a higher class being elected as chairpersons (sarpanch).
Concerns remain regarding reserving seats for women in elected positions. The issue of training has become an increasing concern in preparing women for leadership roles. It was found in Tamil Nadu that women lack the education and training to understand procedures in panchayats.
Family also plays a significant role in women's participation in government. Familial influence can serve as either a barrier or a support system for female elected officials in terms of connections. Family connections can help women seek elected positions at both the national and local government levels. There has been concern over the role of women as proxies for male family members, but women may still have important effects on policy decisions. The effect of reservation for women has been an increase in the number of public goods, including water and roads. Drinking water and road improvements are issues most frequently raised by female elected officials. The most significant issues for men are roads, irrigation, education, and water. Women are also likely to bring welfare issues such as violence against women, childcare, and maternal health to consideration.
Political parties
India has a multi-party system with 6 registered parties at the national level. The six largest parties in India are the Indian National Congress (INC), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Aam Aadmi Party (AAP), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), National People's Party (NPP) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). Political parties have increased outreach among women voters as India's party system has become more competitive. This has included the creation of women's wings in the largest parties. The BJP's wing is the BJP Mahila Morcha, the INC's wing is All India Mahila Congress, the AAP's wing is the AAP Mahila Shakti (AMS), the CPI(M)'s wing is the All India Democratic Women's Association, the NPP's wing is the National People's Women Committee, and the CPI's wing is the National Federation of Indian Women.
Women's involvement in political parties is tied to the increasing demand for equal rights. The INC held power until the 1990s. As the INC moved away from welfare politics, other parties arose to challenge it, centering their agenda on poverty. The INC regained power in 2004 with the help of women's participation. The INC has increased women's participation by instituting a 33% quota for women at all levels of the party. In June 2009, the INC nominated a Meira Kumar to become the first women speaker of the Lok Sabha, and also supported the election of Pratibha Patil, India's first female president.