Joseph Simon Gallieni (24 April 1849 – 27 May 1916) was a French military officer, active for most of his career as a military commander and administrator in the French colonies where he wrote several books on colonial affairs.
He was recalled from retirement at the beginning of the First World War. As military governor of Paris he played an important role in the First Battle of the Marne, when Maunoury's Sixth Army, which was under his command, attacked the German west flank. A small portion of its strength was rushed to the front in commandeered Paris taxicabs.
From October 1915 he served as Minister of War, resigning from that post in March 1916 after criticizing the performance of the French Commander-in-Chief, Joseph Joffre (formerly his subordinate, earlier in their careers), during the German attack on Verdun. He died later that year and was made Marshal of France posthumously in 1921.
Early life and career
Gallieni was born in 1849 at Saint-Béat, in the department of Haute-Garonne, in the central Pyrenees.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216 He was of CorsicanHerwig 2009, pp. 136–137 and Italian descent.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216 His father, born in Pogliano Milanese, had risen from the ranks to be a captain.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
As a student, he was educated, hard-working, and studious at the Prytanée Militaire in La Flèche, and then the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr. He was also gifted and outstanding in mathematics and languages. He later became a second lieutenant in the 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment before serving in the Franco-Prussian War.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
Gallieni fought at SedanHerwig 2009, p. 226 and was taken prisoner at Bazeilles, scene of the stand of the colonial marines.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216 He learned German while a prisoner there, and later kept a notebook in German, English and Italian called "Erinnerungen of my life di ragazzo" ("Memories of my life from boyhood [onwards]").Tuchman 1962, pp. 339–340
Colonial Service
He was promoted to lieutenant in 1873. His colonial career began in 1876 in Senegal. He was promoted to captain in 1878. He led an expedition to the upper Niger. He also served in Reunion and Martinique.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216 In 1886, he had risen to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and was later appointed governor of the French Sudan, during which time he successfully quelled a rebellion by Sudanese insurgents under Mahmadu Lamine. He was outstanding at colonial penetration without open hostilities in West Africa in 1880 and 1886–8.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
In 1888 he was appointed to the War College. In 1892-6 he served as a colonel in French Indochina commanding the second military division of the territory in Tonkin. In 1894 he led successful French action against the nationalist leader Đề Thám, but further military action was overruled by colonial administrators after Đề Thám was accorded a local fiefdom.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
In 1896 he was promoted to General and made Governor of Madagascar, then a new French possession. His rule was characterized by ruthless brutality. He stayed in Madagascar with one brief interruption until 1905; his future commander Joseph Joffre served under him there.Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137 In August 1896 Gallieni reorganised French forces, and captured and executed several rebel leaders. Early in 1897 he abolished the Malagasy monarchy and exiled Queen Ranavalona III to Reunion.Roland, Oliver; Fage, John; Sanderson, G.N. (1985). The Cambridge History of Africa 6. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. .Aldrich 1996, p. 63 Gallieni practised the tache d’huile (the "oil spot" method, which continues to influence counterinsurgency theory to this day) and politique des races (literally, racial policy; i.e., eliminating the racial hierarchy that had prevailed and suppressing tribes that resisted French rule).Aldrich 1996, p. 106 Initially military, his role became more administrative, building roads, a railway, markets, medical services and schools.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
In 1905 Gallieni defended the code de l’indigenat (the right of French officials to mete out summary punishment, including corporal punishment and confiscation of property, to individuals and to entire villages), as it administered punishment more arbitrarily and swiftly than would be possible under due legal process.Aldrich 1996, p. 214
Return to France In 1905 Gallieni was appointed Military Governor of Lyon and commandant of the Army of the Alps (XIV Corps). Also in 1906 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre (the Superior War Council, a body of senior generals chaired by the President).Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
General Victor-Constant Michel (Generalissimo, i.e. Commander-in-Chief designate of the northeast front, and vice-president of the Superior War Council), was critical of the tactical doctrine of offensive à outrance (taking the offense to the limit). He also wanted to thrust into Belgium in the event of war, and to increase the size of the army by attaching a regiment of reservists to each regular regiment to form demi-brigades. Along with Yvon Dubail and Pol Durand, Gallieni was one of those who told War Minister Messimy that Michel must be removed.Doughty 2005, pp. 10, 14
Following Michel's removal Gallieni, who was the preferred choice of Prime Minister Caillaux, declined the job of Army Chief of Staff.Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137 This was partly because of scruples after having forced Michel out, partly because of age—he was two and a half years away from retirement—and partly because the Metropolitan Army might resent a colonial soldier getting the job ("une question de bouton"). His former subordinate Joffre was appointed instead.Tuchman 1962, p. 48Doughty 2005, pp. 14–15
Pre-World War I Gallieni commanded Fifth Army until his retirement, and protested that it was not strong enough to advance into Belgium, and that Maubeuge should be fortified more strongly. His successor Lanrezac shared his concerns.Doughty 2005, p. 41 After tours of the area Gallieni had failed to persuade the authorities to modernise Maubeuge.Tuchman 1962, p. 181
Like a number of officers with colonial experience, Gallieni wanted the French army to give up the pantalon rouge (red trousers worn by French soldiers, allegedly as a boost to morale) and adopt a less conspicuous uniform. This was vetoed on the grounds that dull uniforms might be confused with those of the enemy and might turn the army into a citizen militia like the Boers.Clayton 2003, 38
At the 1911 manoeuvres Gallieni used air reconnaissance to capture a colonel of the Supreme War Council and his staff.Tuchman 1962, p. 261 He expressed reservations about the limited offensive strategy. His views on fortifications, artillery, and use of information obtained from aviation and intelligence were seen as unusual views for a colonial soldier.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
In the same year, Gallieni was considered the logical choice for supreme commander of the French Army, but because of advanced age and poor health, he declined in favour of Joffre.
His date of retirement is given as FebruaryTuchman 1962, p. 181 or April 1914.Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216 His wife died in early summer 1914.Tuchman 1962, pp. 339–340
Before the war he wrote of Joffre in his diary, "When I was riding I passed him in the bois [woods] today—on foot as usual—how fat and heavy he is; he will hardly last out his three years."Tuchman 1962, p. 340 He warned Joffre, correctly as it would turn out, that the Germans would come west of the Meuse in strength (i.e. make an enveloping move deep into Belgium, rather than a shallow incursion through the south-east corner of Belgium and down through the Ardennes).Herwig 2009, pp. 136-137
First World War
The Marne
Gallieni was designated as Joffre's successor "in case of emergency" on 31 July.Doughty 2005, p. 82 Joffre refused to have him at his headquarters, saying "He is difficult to place. I have always been under his orders. Il m’a toujours fait mousser [He always riled me]."Tuchman 1962, p. 184 literally: "he has always made me froth" On 14 August, as the Lorraine offensive was beginning, Gallieni visited Joffre at the insistence of War Minister Adolphe Messimy, who felt intimidated by Joffre. Messimy imagined that Joffre would be more likely to listen to his former superior, but he was quickly palmed off onto the staff officer General Belin and his deputy Berthelot.Tuchman 1962, p. 233Clayton 2003, p. 47
Military Governor of Paris As a condition of becoming Military governor of Paris, Gallieni demanded three active corps to defend the city. War Minister Messimy ordered Joffre to provide them on 25 August but Joffre, regarding this as interference with strategy, ignored the order. Gallieni learned from Messimy that 61st and 62nd Infantry Divisions, formerly the Paris Garrison, were being ordered north for Maunoury’s planned offensive against the German west flank near Amiens, leaving Gallieni with only territorial troops. Already in poor health, Gallieni was appointed on 26 August, not yet knowing that he did not have the resources he had demanded. However, on that day Viviani formed a new government (Union sacrée), and on 27 August the new War Minister Millerand (who had replaced Messimy largely because of the poor state of the Paris defences) visited Joffre, who promised to provide the three corps if Maunoury's attack should fail.Doughty 2005, pp. 82–84Clayton 2003, pp. 53–57Tuchman 1962, p. 399
On 28 August the "Zone of Armies" was extended to cover the Paris suburbs. From 10am to 10:15am Gallieni held his one and only Council of Defence, at which his military and civil cabinets, standing up and without discussion, were made to sign the order placing Paris in a state of defence. He sacked two generals in his first two days.Tuchman 1962, pp. 364-365
On 2 September, the anniversary of the Battle of Sedan, the government left Paris for Bordeaux, with the evacuation continuing through the night of 2/3 September.Greenhalgh 2014, pp. 44–46 Paris was made a "camp militaire retranché".Greenhalgh 2014, pp. 44–46 Before departing, Millerand ordered Gallieni to defend Paris "à outrance," repeating the order when Gallieni explained that it meant destroying buildings and bridges. Gallieni later recorded that he had been certain that he was remaining behind to die.Paris had been besieged and eventually taken by the Germans in the Franco-Prussian War That day Gallieni told Joffre that without the three corps it would be "absolutely impossible to resist." Joffre placed Maunoury's Sixth Army, which was retreating down from the Amiens area, under Gallieni's direct command as the "Armies of Paris." Gallieni at once drove out to inspect his new command—he was horrified by the sight of the refugees—and to visit Maunoury. Gallieni had four territorial divisions and the 185th Territorial Brigade. He soon received a Marine Artillery Brigade (mostly Breton reservist sailors) and the 84th Territorial Division. Sixth Army was soon augmented by IV Corps from Third Army. Maunoury had an active division of VII Corps, a 5,000 strong native Moroccan brigade, and four reserve divisions: 61st and 62nd under Ebener, and 55th and 56th which had fought in Lorraine. Joffre also added Drude's 45th Division of Zouaves from Algeria, who made a huge impression marching through Paris, and IV Corps from Third Army. The Prefect of Police had resigned "on grounds of health" on being ordered to remain at his post. Gallieni stayed up with his staff all night drawing up plans for Sixth Army to give battle between the Oise and Pontoise. Joffre had Millerand place Gallieni under his own command on 2 September.Tuchman 1962, pp. 392–394, 397Clayton 2003, pp. 537Doughty 2005, p. 85Herwig 2009, pp. 226–227