Christian universalism is the position in Christian theology that all human beings will ultimately be saved and restored to a right relationship with God. Universalists espouse various theological beliefs concerning the process or state of salvation, but all adhere to the view that salvation history concludes with the reconciliation of the entire human race to God. It has been argued that the Bible has a variety of verses that seem to support a plurality of eschatological views, though most mainstream Christian denominations do not explicitly teach it.Richard Bauckham, "Universalism: a historical survey", Themelios 4.2 (September 1978): 47–54.

It is known that some figures in early Christianity such Gregory of Nyssa taught universal salvation, although its popular adherence by clergy and laypeople is controversial among historians and theologians. Throughout the middle ages and early modern period it was a minority position relative to belief in eternal damnation, but universalism has seen a resurgence in the 21st century due to the influence of theologians such as David Bentley Hart, Robin Parry and others.

It is not to be confused with Unitarian Universalism, which emerged in part from the Universalist Church but, being a non-credal faith, holds no official doctrinal positions. Universal reconciliation, however, remains a popular viewpoint among many of its congregations and individual believers, including many who have not associated with the Universalist Church.

Biblical background

As David Fisher, a bishop and professor of philosophy has put it, "In the final analysis, the question of salvation is always an inquiry into the balancing of human free will with God's mercy and forgiveness." The Bible itself has, as referred to before, a variety of verses on the subject that appear to be contradictory if not given additional reader interpretation. Influential theologians Emil Brunner and J.A.T. Robinson argue that these verses can be put into two distinct categories: damnation for some or eventual reconciliation for all.

According to biblical scholar David Sim, The Apostle Paul does not seem to believe in an eternal hell but rather annihilationism, while Matthew does.

On the other hand, Robin Parry makes a case that Paul believes in the Ultimate Reconciliation of all people. It is Parry's contention that the overarching story of the Biblical narrative makes a strong case in support of what he calls "Evangelical Universalism."

As well, the Epistle to the Colossians receives attention, with Colossians 1:17–20 reading:

Other Bible verses commonly quoted in support of Christian Universalism include:

Romans 5:18:

Lamentations 3:31-33:

1 Timothy 4:10:

1 Corinthians 15:28

Development of universalist arguments

Broadly speaking, most historical advocates of Christian universalism throughout the years (and many now still) did so from the perspective of accepting the traditional Biblical canon as divinely inspired and without transcription error but rejecting strict Biblical literalism, practicing detailed exegesis of the texts. The advocates have argued that the apparent contradiction between Bible verses that describe God eventually reconciling humanity to goodness (such as in the Epistle to the Ephesians) with those that describe damnation to most of humanity (such as in the Book of Revelation) is that threats of long-term punishment function just as threats, not necessarily as predictions of future events, that will not be actually carried out. Advocates have also argued that suffering of sinners in hell or hell-like states will be long but still limited, not eternal (Apocatastasis).

However, liberal and progressive Christians have often argued that the teachings of the historical Jesus did not mention exclusive salvation for a select few and have altogether rejected many sections of the Bible written by figures decades after the life of Jesus as man-made inventions that are to be taken with a grain of salt.

While not being a universalist per se, influential Christian philosopher Karl Barth, often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the twentieth century, spoke for a great deal of broadly traditional Christians when he wrote that salvation is centrally Christological. He asserted that in Jesus Christ, the reconciliation of all of mankind to God has essentially already taken place and that through Christ man is already elect and justified. Therefore, eternal salvation for everyone, even those that reject God, is a possibility that is more than an open question but should be hoped for by Christians as a matter of grace.

Responses One recurrent objection to universalism made by many has been that having a deep-rooted belief in eternal torment as a possibility is a necessary deterrent from living an immoral life.

Universalists have often responded that punishments for sin can function well without being eternal, especially in the afterlife when one can face severe treatment first before one eventually gets to heaven.

History

Early Christianity According to Edward Beecher and George T. Knight, in the first 600 years of Christian history there were six main theological schools: four of them were universalist, one taught annihilationism and the last taught endless torment. Marcion, a second-century heretic, formulated universalistic theories about God. But many early Church Fathers have been quoted as either embracing or hoping for the ultimate reconciliation of all creatures with God as well.Quotes by Early Church Fathers Regarding the Reconciliation of All, Tentmaker. The concept of a final restoration of all souls had large appeal particularly in the East during the fourth and fifth centuries. Even in the West at that time, according to St. Augustine of Hippo, "very many" refused to believe in the eternal punishment and softened the harder statements of Holy Scripture by interpreting them as non-literal threats and invoking passages speaking of mercy, and St. Jerome wrote that "many" believed that even the devil "will repent and be restored to his former place."

Alexandria The most important school of Universalist thought was the Didascalium in Alexandria, Egypt, which was founded by Saint Pantaenus in about 190. Alexandria was the centre of learning and intellectual discourse in the ancient Mediterranean world, and it was the theological centre of gravity of Christianity prior to the rise of the Roman Church.Christian Universalist, The Christian Universalist Association History of Universalism .Seymour, Charles. A Theodicy of Hell. p. 25. Springer (2000). .

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) The Universalists Hosea Ballou (1829), Thomas Whittemore (1830), John Wesley Hanson (1899) and George T. Knight (1911) claimed that Clement of Alexandria expressed universalist positions in early Christianity. Such claims have always been controversial.Matthew Hale Smith, Universalism not of God: an examination of the system of Universalism, 1847, p. 58, "Universalists claim Origen, Clement of Alexandria, and some others among the early fathers. Yet these fathers held not one doctrine peculiar to Universalism; neither did they believe in the salvation of all men." Some scholars believe that Clement used the term apokatastasis to refer primarily to the restoration of a select few, but with universal implications.Andrew C. Itter, Esoteric teaching in the Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria, 2009, p. 200, "Clement uses the term apokatastasis and its cognates generally to refer to the gnostic elect rather than to an eschatological restoration of the universe, or to a restoration of the faithful as a whole. Where he does mention or imply a restoration of the whole it is through the medium of the restoration of the gnostic. …Hence, while some uses of apokatastasis appear to refer simply to the gnostic elect, by extension, they have universal implications." Brian E. Daley writes that Clement viewed "punishment after death as a medicinal and therefore temporary measure" and that he suggested "with great caution the related prospect of universal salvation for all intelligent creatures", for example in his Stromateis, Book VII, Chapter 2.Brian E. Daley, The Hope of the Early Church: A Handbook of Patristic Eschatology (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 46-47.

Origen (c. 185 – 254) According to Daley, Origen was firmly convinced that "all human souls will ultimately be saved" and "united to God forever in loving contemplation" and that this is "an indispensable part of the 'end' promised by Paul in I Cor 15.24–28." Daley also notes that Origen sometimes called this final state of universal salvation ἀποκατάστασις and suggested it was already a familiar concept to his readers.Brian E. Daley, The Hope of the Early Church: A Handbook of Patristic Eschatology (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 58.

Frederick W. Norris maintained, however, that Origen may not have strongly believed in universal reconciliation at all. In an article on apokatastasis in The Westminster Handbook to Origen (2004) he wrote, "As far as we can tell, therefore, Origen never decided to stress exclusive salvation or universal salvation, to the strict exclusion of either case." However, Origen explicitly stated that universal salvation should not be taught to the masses even if it is true, because only the very wise can abstain from sin without the threat of eternal consequences, so his ambiguity may have been deliberate and does not necessarily entail a lack of conviction that a universal restoration will take place.ed. John Anthony McGuckin, p. 61. See also Elisabeth Dively Lauro in the article on universalism.

Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – 390s) Gregory of Nyssa, who was declared "the father of fathers" by the Seventh Ecumenical Council,St. Gregory of Nyssa, The free library. is interpreted by many scholars as a proponent of universal salvationBrian E. Daley, The Hope of the Early Church: A Handbook of Patristic Eschatology (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 85-89.Ludlow, Morwenna. Universal Salvation: eschatology in the thought of Gregory of Nyssa and Karl Rahner. Pp. 1–2. Oxford University Press (2000). .

Gregory stated, "when death approaches to life, and darkness to light, and the corruptible to the incorruptible, the inferior is done away with and reduced to non-existence, and the thing purged is benefited, just as the dross is purged from gold by fire. In the same way in the long circuits of time, when the evil of nature which is now mingled and implanted in them has been taken away, whensoever the restoration to their old condition of the things that now lie in wickedness takes place, there will be a unanimous thanksgiving from the whole creation, both of those who have been punished in the purification and of those who have not at all needed purification."

6th century – Ecumenical condemnation of universalism?