Kalinjar Fort (Sanskrit: कालंजर, IAST: Kālañjara) is one of the largest fortified cities in India. It was one of eight famous forts built by the Chandela emperors and served as the military capital of the Chandela Empire. The fort occupies an isolated rocky hill at the eastern end of the Vindhya Range, rising 1,203 feet (367 m) above sea level and 800 feet (244 m) above the surrounding plains. It now forms part of a National Geo-Heritage Site by GCI.
Before its fortification by the Chandelas, Kalinjar was an important religious centre, and some of its earliest religious structures date back to the Gupta period. The Kālañjara-maṇḍala (Kalinjar region) was ruled by several dynasties before and after the Chandela Empire, including the Kurus of Chedi, Guptas, Pushyabhutis, Varmanas of Kannauj, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Bundelas, Sur Empire, Baghelas, Mughal Empire, Marathas, and the British.
Mythology Name and entymology Kalinjar was historically known as Kālañjara, from Sanskrit kāla, meaning "time". The 17th-century Mahābhārata commentator Nīlakaṇṭha Caturdhara interpreted the name as "one who destroys or subdues [the effects of] time". At least later on, this was connected to Shiva's role as the lord of time; for example, Kalinjar is mentioned in the opening lines of the Rauravasūtrasaṃgraha as the abode of Sadāśiva, "the lord of time... the creator of time, the knower of time".
The name is also attested in the Prakrit forms Kālaṃjara and Kāliṃjara in Jain texts.
Abode of Shiva Kalinjar finds its mention in ancient Hindu mythological texts. According to Hindu legends, it is said that after the Samudra Manthan, when Shiva consumed poison that turned his throat blue, he came to Kalinjar and defeated kaal; i.e. achieved victory over death. This is why the Shiva temple at Kalinjar is called Neelkanth (blue-throated). Since then, the hill has been considered a holy site.
Mythological importance Kalinjar was already an important pilgrimage centre in early times. It is mentioned three times in the Mahābhārata: twice in the Tīrthayātrāparva in Book 3 and once in the list of tīrthas in Book 13. The first reference in Book 3 describes Kālañjara as "a famous place where one should bathe at the Devahrada" and says that if one dies by performing prāyopaveśa (self-starvation at the end of life when old and ailing) at Kālañjara, one's ātman rises straight up to heaven. The second mention identifies Kālañjara as the site of Hiraṇyabindu, the ashram (spiritual retreat) of the revered sage Agastya. The reference in Book 13 mentions another place called Ṣaṣṭihrada at Kālañjara. These verses indicate the presence of one or more sacred pools at Kalinjar, which could refer to any of the many natural pools on the mountain. However, there is no indication in the Mahābhārata of any sort of connection with Shiva.
Another early mention is in the Harivaṃśa, which is considered an appendix to the Mahābhārata. The Harivaṃśa contains a story of seven Brahmins who are reborn at Kālañjara as seven deer who, after living lives devoted to dharma, remember their past lives at Kālañjara and die by performing prāyopaveśa. They are then reborn as cakravākas in a place called Sariddvīpa.
By the time of the Skanda Purāṇas composition, Kalinjar had become a major centre of Shaivism: Kālañjara is included in the Skanda Purāṇa's list of Shiva's abodes, which says, "One who has seen the liṅga at Mount Kālañjara, the dwelling of Umāpati, obtains the result of an aśvamedha and reaches Rudraloka." The Skanda Purāṇa also includes the story of the seven Brahmins reincarnated as deer, albeit with some minor changes. The Skanda Purāṇa also contains the story of Shiva saving his devotee Śveta from death and making him one of his gaṇas (divine attendants); although this story is usually set at Kalinjar, most recensions of the Skanda Purāṇa do not mention Kalinjar explicitly, instead referring to it as "Krodheśvara", a name not used elsewhere. Two recensions of the Skanda Purāṇa, though, do explicitly describe this episode as taking place at Kālañjara. Several other Purāṇas also contain this story, such as the Kūrma Purāṇa, Liṅga Purāṇa, and the Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa.
Kalinjar is also included in the pañcāṣṭaka lists of Shaiva pilgrimage sites, which appear in many tantric sources (mostly from the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition), as well as the pre-tantric Śivadharmaśāstra.
Kalinjar is also mentioned in the Jain texts Uttarādhyayana and Āvaśyaka Sūtra as a mountain where the ascetic brothers Citta and Saṃbhūya were born as deer in their previous lives.
History Early history By the Gupta period, Kalinjar had definitely become a site of Shiva worship: two terracotta seals from this period, found at Bhita near Allahabad, mention the name Kālañjara along with depictions of lingas, indicating the presence of a Shiva temple here. One of these seals mentions the name Bhadreśvara, which may be a reference to the Bhadreśvara temple at Kalinjar known from a later inscription.
A fragmentary inscription from the Chandi Darwaza at Kalinjar, possibly from the 8th or 9th century, refers to a temple called Bhadreśvara at Kalinjar, which it states was built sometime in the distant past by a king named Udayana. This king Udayana has been commonly assumed to be the ancestor of the Panduvanshī dynasty of Dakshina Kosala, but according to Peter Bishop it is probably instead a referenc e to the legendary king Udayana who is mentioned in the Bṛhatkathā as jumping to his death at Kālañjara after realizing the transitory nature of life. If this is the Udayana referred to in the inscription, then it would indicate that, by this period, there was a local tradition connecting Kalinjar and Udayana. It also indicates that the Bhadreśvara temple had a long history by this time. A couple of 9th-century inscriptions refer to the construction of a temple of Shiva and its subsequent visiting by pilgrims, which according to Syed Ali Nadeem Rezavi probably refers to the Nilakantha temple. Another undated inscription that appears to be from the pre-Chandela period mentions a family merchants, indicating "the presence of a wealthy trading community" at Kalinjar during this period.
A pre-Angkorian inscription from Prasat Preah Theat in Cambodia also refers to a linga called Kālañjaleśvara, which is probably a reference to Kalinjar.
The episode of the seven deer may be depicted at Kalinjar at a site called Mṛgadhārā, on the south side of the fort, where there are images of seven deer along with some Gupta-period inscriptions in the rock. These seven deer are also referred to in the local Kālañjaramāhātmya.
Medieval period By the year 836, Kalinjar appears to have been under Gurjara-Pratihara control, but it changed several times in the mid-900s: first it was captured by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. Sometime before 954, the Chandela dynasty under Yashovarman had captured Kalinjar from the Rashtrakutas. Later bardic traditions claimed that Kalinjar was the Chandelas' place of origin, but contemporary inscriptions indicate that it was not their capital during this period. In inscription dated to 998, though, Yashovarman's son and successor Dhanga used the title Kālañjarādhipati, indicating that it had become his capital by then. From then on, Kalinjar is mentioned in almost every Chandela text or inscription.पौराणिक एवं ऐतिहासिक ग्रन्थों में वर्णित कालिंजर । कालिंजर-षष्टम अध्याय।(पीडीएफ) कु.रमिता- शोध कार्य।शोध पर्यवेक्षक:प्रो.बी.एन.राय।ज.लाल नेहरु महाविद्यालय, बांदा।२१ अगस्त, २००१।
Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the Chandela Empire twice during the reign of Vidyadhara. In 1019–20, Mahmud encountered the Chandela army after sacking new Pratihara capital of Bari. The accounts differ on the outcome: Nizamuddin Ahmad describes Vidyadhara's withdrawal without a battle, while Ali ibn al-Athir records a battle between the two armies. In 1022, Mahmud again invaded, besieging Gwalior Fort, whose Kachchhapaghata ruler agreed to pay tribute, and then advanced towards Kalinjar Fort. The Chandelas resisted the siege, forcing Mahmud to negotiate with Vidyadhara. The siege ended with an agreement involving elephants and other gifts, which Muslim sources describe as tribute, while some historians interpret the settlement as an exchange of gifts.
In the late 11th century, an inscription from the reign of Kirttivarman records that the king's guru, Śrīmūrti, was responsible for the construction of the maṇḍapa of the Nilakantha temple at Kalinjar.
The 1100s seem to have been relatively peaceful for Kalinjar, and a lot of construction took place. Various inscriptions also attest to Chandela feudatories making pilgrimages to the Nilakantha temple during this century. The final additions to the Nilakantha temple were probably made around the turn of the 13th century, during the reign of Paramardi, who left an inscription here dated to 28 October 1201.
This period of prosperity was interrupted in 1202 or 1203 (599 AH) when the Ghurid general Qutb ud-Din Aibak led an army to besiege Kalinjar. Paramardi gave stiff resistance, but was forced apply for treaty because of water shortage, but he died before treaty was finalised. But seeing the water receding, Ajaydeva started the resistance again, but was forced to surrender. Finally, on 27 April 1203, the fort's garrison surrendered. However, although Kalinjar was put under a Muslim governor, some of its temples supposedly destroyed, and the whole place probably looted, Paramardi's successor Trailokyavarman was able to quickly reconquer it within a couple of years. A 1205 inscription refers to Trailokyavarman with the title Kālañjarādhipati once again, indicating that it was under Chandela control by this point.
In 1233/34, the Ghurid commander Malik Nusratuddin Taisi was tasked with leading an expedition against Kalinjar. Although Taisi does not appear to have actually captured the fortress, his army plundered the town below and carried off a vast amount of wealth. Trailokyavarman appears to have maintained control of Kalinjar, and his successor Viravarman certainly did as well. The final Chandela ruler, Hammiravarman, is also mentioned as Kālañjarādhipati in an inscription dated to 1289 (VS 1346). After the Chandelas, Kalinjar came under the Bundela dynasty for an unknown length of time.
Early modern period Mughal-Kalinjar conflicts Around 1530, the Mughal emperor Humayun besieged Kalinjar. His association with the fort in that year is recorded by a Persian inscription carved on a rock below Patalganga. The inscription identifies Humayun as Padshah Ghazi and is dated to the last day of Rajab al-Murajjab in the year 936, corresponding to March 1530.
The campaign is also mentioned in the account of Gulbadan Begum, who states that Humayun, who was still a prince, undertook a campaign against Kalinjar during the final year of Babur's reign. Abu'l-Fazl gives a different chronological account and states that Humayun invested Kalinjar after ascending the throne. Since Humayun formally succeeded Babur in May 1531, this has led to discussion over whether he undertook two expeditions against Kalinjar.
Historians Qanungo and Iqtidar Alam Khan argued that a separate expedition to the Kalinjar region in 1531 was unlikely. The chronological discrepancy in Abu'l-Fazl's account has been connected with his description of Humayun's accession during Babur's illness. The Persian inscription indicates that Humayun had achieved his objective at Kalinjar in March 1530, making a return expedition in 1531 unnecessary. At the time of this siege, the king of Kalinjar was Rudra Pratap Singh of the Bundela dynasty. Rudra Pratap accepted the suzerainty of Humayun and became his tributary by paying tribute to him.
Siege of Kalinjar (1545)