Phoenice ( ; ) was a province of the Roman Empire, encompassing the historical region of Phoenicia. It was officially created in 194 AD and after , Phoenice Syria was divided into Phoenice proper or Phoenice Paralia, and Phoenice Libanensis, a division that persisted until the region was conquered by the Rashidun caliphate in the 630s.
Administrative history Background
Phoenicia came under Roman rule in 64 BC, when Pompey created the province of Syria. With the exception of a brief period in 36–30 BC, when Mark Antony gave the region to Ptolemaic Egypt, Phoenicia remained part of the province of Syria thereafter. Emperor Hadrian (reigned 117–138) is said to have considered a division of the overly large Syrian province in 123–124 AD.
Creation It was not until shortly after c. 194 AD that Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) actually undertook this, dividing the province into Syria Coele in the north and Syria Phoenice in the south. The province was much larger than the area traditionally called Phoenicia: for example, cities like Emesa and Palmyra and the base of the Legio III Gallica in Raphanaea were now subject to the governor who resided in Tyre. Veterans of this military unit were settled in Tyre, which also received the rank of colonia.Ulpian, Digests 50.15.1.
After the death of the 2nd century Roman emperor Commodus, a civil war erupted, in which Berytus, and Sidon supported Pescennius Niger. While the city of Tyre supported Septimius Severus, which led Niger to send Mauri javelin men and archers to sack the city.Herodian, Roman History 3.3. However, Niger lost the civil war, and Septimius Severus decided to show his gratitude for Tyre's support by making it the capital of Phoenice. Berytus was permitted to maintain its status as a Roman colony but lost the territory of Heliopolis, which was established as a separate colony. Ulpian, a native of Tyre, states that the grant of colonial status to Heliopolis resulted from this civil war.Linda Jones Hall (2004), p. 49 Elagabalus (r. 218–222) later raised his native Emesa to co-capital, and the two cities rivalled each other as the head of the province until its division in the 4th century. However, Elagabalus is recognized for bestowing imperial favor on Berytus, along with other cities in the region.Linda Jones Hall (2004) p. 64
Phoenician revival Septimius Severus revitalized Phoenician identity through the establishment of Phoenice. This revival of an ancient regional name seems to have stemmed from his pride in his origins in the region of Dido in North Africa and his wife’s ancestral ties to historic Phoenicia. This deliberate invocation of the legendary connection between Tyre and Carthage, celebrated in the Aeneid, was reflected in several significant projects.
During the early third century, Septimius Severus and his successors undertook extensive construction in the coastal cities of Phoenicia as well as in various Punic cities in North Africa. Notably, Lepcis Magna, his birthplace, was richly adorned and linked to the city of Tyre through coinsFoundation Myths in Ancient Societies: Dialogues and Discourses (2014) p. 248 and inscriptions.Pierre-Louis Gatier, Julien Aliquot et Lévon Nordiguian (éd.). Sources de l’histoire de Tyr II. Textes et images de l’Antiquité et du Moyen Âge The Severan dynasty actively promoted the Phoenician-Roman connection by glorifying the Aeneid and its characters.
For instance, coins from Tyre during this period depict Dido overseeing the founding of Carthage, and one inscription from Lepcis Magna dedicated to Geta honored 'SEPTIMIA TYROS COLONIA METROPOLIS PHOENICES ET ALIARUM CIVITATUM' (‘Tyre the Septimian colony, mother-city of Phoenicia and of other cities.’). These efforts not only served to elevate his imperial authority and family heritage but also bolstered Phoenician identity in the newly formed province of Phoenice.Linda Jones Hall (2004), pg. 93-94
Governors Achillius I was referred to as the hegemon of Phoenice in a letter written to introduce Theophanes Scholasticus, a bureaucrat traveling from Egypt to Antioch between 317 and 324.
Flavius Dionysius served as governor of Phoenice from 328 to 329 and was the recipient of several laws and rescripts. A native of Sicily and an advocate, he also held the position of Consularis Syriae from 329 to 335. Additionally, he served as Comes (Consistorius) in 335 and was responsible for overseeing the Council of Tyre.
Archelaus was consularis of Phoenice in 335 and is referred to as hypatikos by Socrates Scholasticus.Linda Jones Hall (2004), p. 95 He is notably remembered for discovering in hiding Arsenius, a Melitian bishop, whose hand was falsely claimed by Eusebius' faction to have been used by Athanasius for magical rites after murdering its owner. During a trial, the severed hand was presented as evidence, but Athanasius exposed Arsenius, who was revealed to be alive and in full possession of both his hands.Defense Against the Arians, Athanasius of Alexandria
Nonnus served as governor of Phoenice around 337, followed by Marcellinus, who held the position of praeses of Phoenice in 342. Later, Apollinaris governed Phoenice from 353 to 354, carrying the title of rector provinciae at Tyre.Linda Jones Hall (2004), pg. 96 Apollinaris and his son were involved in the plot against Constantius Gallus and were executed, as reported by Ammianus Marcellinus.The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus, translation of C. D. Yonge, p. 26
Interactions with Libanius By the 4th century, Phoenice was part of the Diocese of Oriens, which was governed by the comes Orientis based in Antioch. Both the comes Orientis and the governor of Syria resided in Antioch. Although Libanius lived in Antioch, located in the province of Syria, he was deeply involved in the political dynamics of both Syria and Phoenice, partly because his income came from both provinces.
The identities of many governors of Phoenice are known through Libanius's correspondence, as several had personal or professional connections with him in Antioch. Among them was Demetrius, a wealthy native of Tarsus from a prominent family, who served as governor of Phoenice sometime before 358. Another governor, Julianus, held office before 360 and later became proconsul of Asia in 360.Julianus 11 (PLRE I) Libanius regarded him as a good ruler,Libanius. Epistula 223 though he is distinct from another governor with the same name who served later.
Andronicus succeeded Julianus as governor, holding office from 360–361.Andronicus 3 (PLRE I), Governor of Phoenice 360-1. He was a native of Constantinople and had been one of Libanius’s students. Libanius sent numerous letters to Andronicus, which provide insights into the scope of authority held by the Phoenician governor.Linda Jones Hall (2004), pg. 97 While serving in 360, Andronicus received a letter from Libanius on behalf of Apringius, a law student, in which Libanius requests that the governor exempt Fraternus, the future father-in-law of Apringius, from civic obligations in Phoenice.Libanius Epistula 150 In other letters from the same year, Libanius references Andronicus' governorship. One letter featured a traditional depiction of Phoenicia’s natural and cultural wealth, praising the region’s fertility, seasonal harmony, temples, and the production of purple dye.Libanius Epistula 195 Libanius frequently sought favors from the governors; an example of this is a letter from 360 AD, in which he asks for Phoenician huntsmen to participate in a civic entertainment event in Antioch.Libanius Epistula 217 Andronicus was renowned for his works in judicial processes, particularly his efforts to eliminate abuses, and for his reputation for incorruptibility.Libanius, Orationes 62.56–7
After leaving office, Andronicus settled in Tyre;Libanius Or. 62.58 he was still in Phoenicia in 363 when he received a letter from Libanius in which Phoenicia was described as the "fairest spot in the world" during the governorship of Marius.Libanius Epistula 1221 Another governor, Aelius Claudius Dulcitius, a Roman official of humble origins, hailed from Phrygia. He rose to prominence during the reign of Emperor Constantius II, and according to the orator Libanius, Dulcitius was characterized by a love of wealth.Libanius Or 62.24 He held the governorship of Phoenice sometime before 361.Linda Jones Hall (2004), pg. 99-100
Later governors
Anatolius, originally from Cilicia, served as governor of Phoenice in 361,Libanius Epistulae 233; 304; 371; 674; Ep. 636Anatolius 4, Governor of Phoenice 361 (PLRE I). accompanied by his sons, Apolinarius and Gemellus.Libanius Epistulae 307, 637. Libanius wrote about the legal cases overseen by Anatolius during his tenure, notably recounting a high-profile case of rape committed by a tax collector. Libanius also offered a description of Phoenice at the time, portraying it as "the most civilized region of all," and governed by the rule of law.Libanius Epistula 77
Polycles, the governor of Phoenice from 361 to 362 was the first official appointed by Julian after he became sole emperor.Polycles, Governor (?consularis?) of Phoenice 361-362 (PLRE I) However, Julian later dismissed him for incompetence, leading Polycles to harbor resentment toward him. However, Libanius defends Julian against Polycles' grievances.Libanius. Or. 37.12
Another Julianus served as consularis of Phoenice in 362. A native of Syria, he was highly skilled in Greek, Latin, and law,Libanius, Epistulae 668, 1296 and Ep. 740, 1296 and later became comes Orientis in 364. Libanius sought Julianus’ assistance in restoring his salary supplement from Phoenice. Julianus held the position of consularis Phoenices as of September 3, 362.Codex Theodosianus 12.1.52a Libanius wrote to him to ensure the arrangement for the partial payment of his salary as a rhetoric teacher in Antioch was honored. This arrangement, restored by Salutius, Julian’s praetorian prefect, reversed a salary cut imposed by Helpidius.Libanius, Epistula 740/ N89
The governor Libanius knew and valued most was Gaianus, who served as consularis of Phoenice from 362 to 363, succeeding Julianus.Gaianus 6 (PLRE I), Governor (consularis) of Phoenice 362-3. A native of Tyre,Libanius Epistula 119, and Ep. 336 Gaianus was a paganLibanius Epistula 1364 and an advocate who graduated from the Law School of Berytus.Collinet 1925, pp. 87–88 Before 362, he held the position of Assessor to an official in Antioch.Libanius, Epistulae 780 (362) and 799 (363). According to Libanius, Gaianus owed his appointment to the use of charm or magic. Throughout his life, Libanius sent him numerous letters, ranging from requests to expressions of praise and friendship. In 363, Gaianus passed his position to Marius but remained in Phoenicia, where he continued to reside.Libanius Ep. 780 (362), 799, 800 (362-3), 828 (363), 1355 (363), 1375, 1422
Marius I served as the consularis of Phoenice from 363 to 364. A native of Antioch,Marius I, (PLRE I): Ep. 1142, 1217, 1269, 1460.Marius I, (PLRE I) he was a pagan, a sophist,Libanius, Epistula 1460. and a skilled orator, as described by Libanius. Marius retired in 364 and was succeeded by Ulpianus, who served as Governor of Phoenice in 364.Linda Jones Hall (2004), p. 102 Ulpianus, a rhetorician, had previously governed Cappadocia from 361 to 363 before his appointment in Phoenicia.Ulpianus 3, Governor of Phoenice 364, (PLRE I).