Knossos (; ; ; Linear B: Ko-no-so) is an archaeological site and ancient urban centre in Crete, Greece. It is located within the southern periphery of Heraklion, about south of the city's historic centre. The site was occupied from the Neolithic period into the first millennium AD and became the largest and best-known centre of the Minoan civilisation.
Knossos is widely considered Europe's oldest city.
Settlement on Kephala hill began around 7000 BC, making Knossos one of the earliest known Neolithic settlements on Crete. Its expansion into an urban centre accelerated at the beginning of the second millennium BC. Knossos became a leading centre of the Minoan civilisation, widely regarded as Europe's earliest advanced civilisation. Occupation of the valley continued through the Greek, Roman and early Byzantine periods.
The site is dominated by the monumental Palace of Minos. Like other Minoan palaces, the complex is generally interpreted as an administrative, economic, religious and ceremonial centre. Its role as a royal residence is debated. The first palace was built around 1900 BC on a hill that had already been occupied for several millennia. It was rebuilt and expanded after a major destruction around 1700 BC and remained the central monument of Knossos into the Late Bronze Age. A major palatial destruction is conventionally dated to about 1350 BC, although the chronology of the palace's final destruction remains debated.
Knossos is closely associated with the Greek myths of Minos, Pasiphaë, Ariadne, Theseus, Daedalus, Icarus and the Minotaur. In later Greek tradition, the complex plan of the palace was remembered as the Labyrinth. In 2025, Knossos was inscribed as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Minoan Palatial Centres, together with Phaistos, Malia, Zakros, Zominthos and Kydonia.
Name
The ancient name of the city is attested in Greek as and in Linear B as , transliterated as Ko-no-so. The Latinised form Cnossus was also used in antiquity and in older scholarship. The modern Greek form is usually written , although the classical spelling remains common in archaeological and historical writing.
Location and setting
Knossos lies on Kephala hill, in the valley of the Kairatos river, within the modern municipality of Heraklion, about south of the historic centre. The location gave the ancient settlement access to the north coast of Crete, its harbour and routes into the island's interior.
The archaeological landscape extends beyond the palace itself. It includes remains of the surrounding Minoan town, later Greek and Roman occupation, cemeteries, roads, villas, sanctuaries and ritual buildings. The Knossos Urban Landscape Project, a collaboration involving the British School at Athens and the Greek Archaeological Service, surveyed approximately around Knossos. It documented occupation from about 7000 BC into the modern period across an archaeological landscape that includes an urban site of about , surrounding cemeteries and other archaeological features.
Chronology
The chronology of Knossos extends from the Neolithic to the Byzantine period. The dates below are approximate; the dating of the final palatial destruction remains debated.
+ Main periods at Knossos Period Approximate date Main characteristics Neolithic c. 7000 to 3000 BC First permanent settlement on Kephala hill; early farming community; long continuity of occupation Prepalatial period c. 3000 to 1900 BC Settlement growth, increasing craft specialisation, exchange networks and social complexity First Palace period c. 1900 to 1700 BC Construction of the first palace; development of palatial administration, storage and ritual activity Second Palace period c. 1700 to 1450 BC Rebuilt and expanded palace; peak of Minoan architecture, fresco painting and palace-centred organisation Mycenaean period c. 1450 to 1350 BC Mycenaean Greek influence; Linear B administration; major palatial destruction conventionally dated about 1350 BC Postpalatial and Late Bronze Age c. 1350 to 1100 BC Reduced use of the palace complex; continued occupation of the wider settlement Early Iron Age c. 1100 to 700 BC Continued settlement; important cemeteries; evidence of regional status and external contacts Archaic and Classical periods c. 700 to 323 BC Development as a Greek Cretan city-state; association with Minos and Cretan lawgiving traditions Hellenistic period c. 323 to 67 BC Political rivalry with other Cretan cities, especially Gortyn; continued urban occupation Roman period 67 BC to late antiquity Roman colony; development of villas, mosaics and later urban structures Early Byzantine period Late antiquity to first millennium AD Continued but declining occupation as Heraklion became the dominant regional centre
History
Neolithic period
The earliest known settlement at Knossos dates to about 7000 BC, during the early Neolithic period. This makes Knossos one of the earliest permanent settlements on Crete and one of the earliest long-lived settlements in the Aegean. The first community occupied the summit of Kephala hill, the later site of the palace. Archaeological evidence indicates a small but stable settlement based on farming, animal husbandry and domestic craft production.
Over the following millennia, the settlement expanded and accumulated deep archaeological deposits. Pottery, stone tools, figurines and building remains show long continuity through the Early, Middle, Late and Final Neolithic phases. By the Final Neolithic, the settlement formed a sizeable community that continued to grow during the third millennium BC.
Prepalatial period
During the Prepalatial period, about 3000 to 1900 BC, Knossos grew in size and complexity before the construction of the first palace. The settlement developed stronger craft specialisation, wider exchange networks and greater social differentiation. Survey evidence indicates a marked acceleration of settlement growth at the beginning of the second millennium BC.
The end of the Prepalatial period saw major architectural changes on Kephala hill. Earlier structures were levelled or reorganised, creating the platform on which the first palace was built.
First Palace period
The first palace at Knossos was constructed around 1900 BC. It marked a major shift in the organisation of the settlement and the surrounding region. The palace appears to have functioned as a centre for administration, storage, redistribution, ritual activity and craft production. The use of writing systems, sealings and specialised storage areas points to a complex bureaucracy.
The first palace was destroyed around 1700 BC, probably by an earthquake or a series of seismic events. The palace was subsequently rebuilt on a larger and more elaborate scale.
Second Palace period
The Second Palace period, from about 1700 to 1450 BC, was the height of Minoan Knossos. The palace was reconstructed with its central court, monumental entrances, staircases, magazines, reception rooms, ritual spaces, light wells, drainage systems and richly decorated wall paintings. The surrounding town also expanded.
During this period, Knossos maintained strong links with other parts of Crete and the wider eastern Mediterranean. Evidence from pottery, frescoes, administrative documents and luxury objects suggests extensive economic, artistic and cultural exchange.
The palace was partially destroyed around 1450 BC, during a wider period of disruption affecting many Minoan sites. After this event, Knossos continued to function, but with stronger Mycenaean Greek influence.
Mycenaean and Postpalatial period
After about 1450 BC, Knossos became an important Mycenaean administrative centre. The Linear B tablets discovered at the site record an early form of Greek and provide evidence for administrative control over land, labour, livestock, textiles, offerings and other resources. These tablets are a major source for the study of Late Bronze Age Crete and Mycenaean administration.
The fourteenth-century BC Aegean place-name list of Amenhotep III at his mortuary temple at Kom el-Hetan includes a name generally identified as Knossos. The list has been interpreted as an itinerary of an Egyptian journey to the Aegean, although its purpose remains debated.
A major destruction of the palace by fire is conventionally dated to about 1350 BC. The date of the final destruction and the interpretation of later material in the palace remain subjects of archaeological research. Occupation of the wider settlement continued after the decline of the palatial administration.
Early Iron Age
Knossos remained occupied after the collapse of the Bronze Age palace system. During the Early Iron Age, it was one of the most significant communities on Crete. Cemeteries such as the North Cemetery, Fortetsa and Teke provide evidence for continued prosperity, social organisation and overseas contacts. Grave goods show connections with other parts of the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean.
Survey work has also identified extensive Early Iron Age occupation beyond the areas previously excavated. Imported pottery, metals and ornaments indicate connections with mainland Greece, Cyprus, the Near East, Egypt, Italy and the western Mediterranean. Burial evidence and settlement material together help establish the extent and character of the community.
Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods
In the Archaic and Classical periods, Knossos was a major Cretan city-state. It was associated in Greek tradition with King Minos and the laws of Crete. Literary sources and archaeological evidence show that Knossos remained politically important, although its power fluctuated in relation to other Cretan cities, especially Gortyn.
Knossos issued coinage and participated in the political and military rivalries of Crete. Its mythological status also gave it cultural significance beyond the island. The Labyrinth motif on Knossian coinage demonstrates the continuing connection between the city and the mythic memory of Minos, Theseus and the Minotaur.
During the Hellenistic period, Knossos continued to compete with other Cretan cities. Cretan politics in this period were marked by alliances, rivalries and repeated local conflicts. Knossos remained one of the principal cities of the island, although Gortyn increasingly became the dominant political centre in Roman Crete.
Roman and early Byzantine periods
In the Roman period, after Crete came under Roman control, Knossos remained inhabited and developed new public and private buildings. The Roman Villa of Dionysos, known for its mosaics, is one of the notable remains from this phase. The city became known as Colonia Iulia Nobilis Cnossus, reflecting its status under Roman rule.
Occupation continued into the early Byzantine period, although the site gradually declined in importance as nearby Heraklion became the dominant urban centre of the region. The ancient name survived in later settlement history and in the modern place name.
Mythology
Knossos was central to several of the best-known myths of ancient Crete. In Greek tradition, it was the seat of King Minos, son of Zeus and Europa. Minos was remembered as a powerful ruler, lawgiver and judge.
The most famous myth connected with Knossos is the story of the Labyrinth and the Minotaur. According to the myth, Minos ordered Daedalus to build the Labyrinth to contain the Minotaur, a creature with the body of a man and the head of a bull. Athens was forced to send young men and women as tribute until Theseus, helped by Minos's daughter Ariadne, entered the Labyrinth, killed the Minotaur and escaped by following a thread.
Other myths connected with Knossos include the story of Daedalus and Icarus, who escaped from Crete with wings made by Daedalus. These myths became central to later Greek, Roman and European art, literature and political symbolism.