The Yuan dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China, proclaimed on 18 December 1271 by Kublai Khan, which succeeded the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty. It also functioned as a continuation of the Mongol Empire, which was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, but which subsequently split into four autonomous states. The emperors of the Yuan dynasty thus comprise both Kublai's successors as rulers of China and his predecessors up to his grandfather Genghis, who was retrospectively presented as the founder of the dynasty.

The rulers of the Yuan dynasty were nominally superior to those of the other three post-Mongol states, but each was de facto independent of the others and occupied with their own territories. The Yuan dynasty adopted Han political traditions, including the use of posthumous names, temple names and era names. Aside from the title of emperor, Yuan rulers also concurrently held the title of khagan.

Although the reigns of Kublai and his successor Temür were generally peaceful, weaknesses in the Yuan administration became apparent and led to a gradual breakdown of political stability. By the mid-14th century, the Yuan state became impossible to govern, and in 1368 the last emperor, Toghon Temür, was forced to flee China proper. His descendants continued to rule a rump state in Inner Mongolia, known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.

Background

Through years of campaigning, Genghis Khan ( – 1227) unified the tribes of the Mongolian steppe and was crowned khan of the Mongol Empire, or , in 1206. The campaigns of the following decades saw Mongol armies invade and conquer China, Central Asia, Persia and much of the Middle East, and Russia. However, different branches of Genghis Khan's line became dominant in differing areas. As a result, by 1265, the once-united empire had begun to split into four independent states: the Golden Horde in modern-day Russia, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in the Near East, and a regime in China which was ruled by Genghis's grandson Kublai Khan and which was nominally superior to the rest.

To appeal to the Han Chinese-majority population of his empire in China, Kublai portrayed himself as an emperor based on Chinese principles and declared the foundation of a new imperial dynasty titled (Great Yuan), essentially a way to express (Great Mongol Empire) in Chinese terms. The Great Yuan was officially proclaimed on 18 December 1271. The Yuan dynasty was regarded by the early Ming dynasty editors of the History of Yuan as synonymous with the Mongol Empire, so they retroactively described Genghis Khan as the dynastic founder and his coronation in 1206 as the beginning of the dynasty; the post-1271 emperors styled themselves as the Emperor of China (Huangdi) in addition to Mongol khans. In Chinese historical texts, emperors of the Yuan dynasty, along with the Tang and Song dynasties, are referred to by their temple names; they also had posthumous names and normally multiple era names.

Kublai presided over the final conquest of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan. Although his reign was generally long and prosperous, weaknesses in the Yuan's economy, society, and administration became apparent after the death of his successor Temür in 1307, culminating in two decades of near-anarchy between 1320 and 1340. Although the emperor Toghon Temür then managed to set up a stable government, an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order, and the powerful warlord Zhu Yuanzhang, having forced Toghon Temür to flee, established the Ming dynasty in 1368. Members of the Yuan dynasty continued to rule a rump state in the Mongol heartland, commonly known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.

List of rulers

+ Yuan dynasty (大元; 1271–1368) Portrait Khan name Personal name Reign Succession Life detailsGenghis KhanTemüjin1206 – 25 August 1227( years)Son of Yesugei and Hö'elün – 25 August 1227(aged around 65) Unified the Mongol tribes, founded the Mongol Empire in 1206, initiated the Mongol conquests. Died in uncertain circumstances.None, known by his personal nameTolui1227 – 1229( years)(regency)Fourth son of Genghis – September/October 1231(aged around 40) Commanded armies in Central Asia and in China, and was a candidate to succeed his father as khan. Died in controversial circumstances.None, known by his personal nameÖgedei Khan13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241()Third son of Genghis1186 – 11 December 1241(aged ) Presided over the conquests of the Jin dynasty and Kievan Rus' and the invasion of Europe, refined the imperial administration, and built Karakorum as a capital city. Died from excessive drinking.Töregene KhatunNone, known by her personal nameTöregene Khatun1242 – 1246( years)(regency)Wife of ÖgedeiLate 1180s – late 1246 Her five-year regency on behalf of her son Güyük was noted for its political intrigues and her excessive taxation demands, but after it ended she quickly lost influence and died.None, known by his personal nameGüyük Khan24 August 1246 – April 1248()Son of Ögedei and Töregene1206 – April 1248(aged ) Reversed his mother's economic policies and removed her associates from power; quarrelled with his cousin Batu and may have intended to campaign against him. Died of ill health.Oghul QaimishNone, known by her personal nameOghul Qaimish1248 – 1251( years)(regency)Wife of GüyükEarly 1200s – summer 1252(aged around 50) An ineffective regent, she was outflanked by her political enemies who proclaimed Tolui's son Möngke as khan. After a coup attempt led by her sons failed, she was judged complicit and guilty of witchcraft, and executed.None, known by his personal nameMöngke Khan1 July 1251 – 11 August 1259()First son of Tolui10 January 1209 – 11 August 1259(aged ) Purged those who had opposed his accession in the Toluid Revolution; sent his brother Hulegu to campaign in the Middle East, and himself led the invasion of the Song dynasty, during which he died of fever. Setsen Khanbetter known asKublai Khan Borjigin Kublai 5 May 1260 – 18 February 1294() Second son of Tolui 23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294(aged ) Established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, completed the conquest of the Song dynasty, won the Toluid Civil War, and moved the capital to Khanbaliq. Died of natural causes. Öljeytü Khan Borjigin Temür 10 May 1294 – 10 February 1307() Grandson of Kublai 15 October 1265 – 10 February 1307(aged ) His reign was prosperous yet conservative, implementing policies intended to ensure stability, but he failed to resolve increasing ineffiency in the Yuan administration. Died of natural causes. Külüg Khan Borjigin Haishan 21 June 1307 – 27 January 1311() Great-grandson of Kublai 4 August 1281 – 27 January 1311(aged ) Disregarded established systems, rapidly expanded the bureaucracy, and caused immense fiscal difficulties. Died of natural causes. Buyantu Khan Borjigin Ayurbarwada 7 April 1311 – 1 March 1320() Brother of Külüg 9 April 1285 – 1 March 1320(aged ) Reversed most of his brother's policies, reintroduced the Confucian examination system, and codified laws, but failed to restore fiscal order and was undermined by factional struggles. Died of natural causes. Gegeen Khan Gegeen Khan Borjigin Shidibala 19 April 1320 – 4 September 1323() Son of Ayurbarwada 22 February 1302 – 4 September 1323(aged ) Attempted to reduce the power of the minister and instituted monetary reforms after the latter's death, but was killed in a coup by Temuder's supporters. Borjigin Yesün Temür None, known either by his personal or era name Borjigin Yesün Temür 4 October 1323 – 15 August 1328() Great-Grandson of Kublai 28 November 1293 – 15 August 1328(aged ) Acceded through assassination but achieved stability by purging those who had brought him to power; restored religious impartiality in the administration. Died of natural causes.Borjigin Ragibagh None, known either by his personal or era name Borjigin Ragibagh October 1328 – 14 November 1328() Son of Yesün 1320 – 14 November 1328(aged ) Child emperor; probably murdered amid the War of the Two Capitals. Jayaatu Khan Borjigin Tugh Temür 16 October 1328 – 26 February 1329() Son of Külüg 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332(aged ) Abdicated in favor of his brother Khutughtu Khan. Khutughtu Khan Khutughtu Khan Borjigin Kusala 27 February 1329 – 30 August 1329() Son of Külüg 22 December 1300 – 30 August 1329(aged ) Briefly ruled before being killed by El Temür. Jayaatu Khan(second reign) Borjigin Tugh Temür 8 September 1329 – 2 September 1332() Son of Külüg 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332(aged ) A patron of the arts and scholarship, his reign was dominated by the ministers El Temür and Bayan of the Merkid. Died of natural causes. None, known by his personal name Borjigin Rinchinbal 23 October 1332 – 14 December 1332() Son of Khutughtu 1 May 1326 – 14 December 1332(aged ) Child emperor; died of sudden illness. Borjigin Toghon Temür Ukhaghatu Khan Borjigin Toghon Temür 19 July 1333 – 10 September 1368() Son of Khutughtu 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370(aged ) Restored stable government, but an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order; was forced to flee to Karakorum in 1368 by the warlord Zhu Yuanzhang, and founded the Northern Yuan dynasty in Inner Mongolia. Died of natural causes.

Timeline

See also Yuan dynasty family tree List of Northern Yuan khans List of empresses consort of the Yuan dynasty List of Chinese monarchs List of Mongol rulers

References Notes

Citations

Bibliography

External links