The Book of Rites, also known as the Liji (禮記), is a collection of texts that describe the social forms, administrative structures, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty, as interpreted during the Warring States period and the early Han dynasty. Together with the Rites of Zhou (, 周禮) and the Book of Etiquette and Rites (, 儀禮), it forms part of the "Three Li" (, 三禮), which comprise the ritual (, 禮) component of the Five Classics—a foundational set of texts in the Confucian tradition. Each of the Five Classics is a compilation of works rather than a single text.

As a core Confucian text, the Book of Rites is also referred to as the Classic of Rites or Lǐjīng (禮經). Some scholars suggest that Lijing was the original title before it was changed by the Han dynasty scholar Dai Sheng.

Legitimacy That the Book of Rites contains genuine Warring States period documents (in addition to Han documents) was questioned in China during the Doubting antiquity movement.

In 1993, a copy of the "Black Robes" chapter was discovered in Tomb 1 of the Guodian tombs in Jingmen, Hubei province. As the tomb was sealed around 300 BCE, the discovery reignited scholarly debate regarding the dating of other chapters of the Liji, particularly their possible origins in the Warring States period.Puett, 137 n.19.

Traditionalist Liu Xiaogan (2014) argues that the Book of Rites is now recognized as including "reliable historical materials", and that "at least some sections may preserve pre-Qin dynasty works."

History The Book of Rites is a diverse compilation of texts of uncertain origin and date. Unlike the Rites of Zhou and the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial, it lacks a consistent overall structure. Some sections provide definitions of ritual terminology—particularly those found in the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial—while others contain details concerning the life and teachings of Confucius. Portions of the text have been traced to pre-Han works such as the Xunzi and the Lüshi Chunqiu, while other sections are believed to have been composed during the Former Han period.

During the reign of Qin Shi Huang, many Confucian texts were destroyed in the 213 BCE "Burning of the Books." However, the Qin dynasty collapsed within a decade, and Confucian scholars who had memorised the classics or hidden written copies helped to reconstruct them during the early Han dynasty. The Book of Rites was said to have been fully recovered, although the Classic of Music could not be recompiled. Only fragments of the latter survive, primarily within the "Record of Music" (Yueji) chapter of the Book of Rites.

Subsequent efforts were made to edit and organise the recompiled texts. According to the Book of Sui, the scholar Dai De revised the collection in the 1st century BCE, reducing it from 214 books to 85, known as the Ritual Records of Dai the Elder (). His nephew, Dai Sheng, later abridged this to 46 books, known as the Ritual Records of Dai the Younger (). The scholar Ma Rong subsequently added three additional books, bringing the total to 49. However, later scholarship has questioned this account, noting a lack of reliable evidence attributing these specific revisions to Dai De or Dai Sheng, although both were known Confucian scholars with expertise in ritual texts.Jeffrey K. Riegel, "Li chi ," in Michael Lowe, ed., Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide (Berkeley CA: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1993), pp. 293-97; Michael Lowe, "Dai De," in Xinzhong Yao, edl, RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism (New York: Routledge, 2003).

During this period, both old-script and new-script versions of the text were in circulation, and the content was not yet standardised. Zheng Xuan, a student of Ma Rong, produced an annotated edition of the Rites by synthesising multiple ritual traditions. His compilation of 49 books became the authoritative version, and it remains the standard edition today. Zheng Xuan's annotated version later formed the basis for the Right Meaning of the Ritual Records (), the imperially sanctioned text and commentary on the Book of Rites, established in 653 CE.

Li

Confucius described li (禮) as encompassing all traditional forms that provided a standard of conduct. While li is often translated as "rites," it may also refer to "ceremonial practices" or "rules of conduct." Over time, the term has come to be broadly associated with concepts such as "good form," "decorum," and "politeness."

Confucius emphasised that li should reflect a spirit of piety and respect for others, expressed through appropriate behaviour and ritual observance. As outlined in the Book of Rites, li serves to restore the value of traditional practices by drawing upon the simplicity and order of the past. Confucius believed that a return to these standards of conduct would help stabilise society amid the decline of the Zhou dynasty.

The importance of li is highlighted in the Book of Rites, which states: "Of all things to which the people owe their lives, the rites are the most important..." Over time, the concept of li became closely linked to human nature, ethics, and social harmony, as individuals integrated these practices into their daily lives.

Li is viewed as beneficial to society because it guides individuals in recognising and fulfilling their responsibilities toward others, thereby contributing to social cohesion and moral order.

Legacy Several chapters of the Book of Rites provided the foundation for later works, including the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean. These two texts are traditionally attributed to disciples of Confucius, with one—the Doctrine of the Mean—commonly believed to have been authored by his grandson, Zisi.

During the Song dynasty, the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi compiled and edited versions of the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean, elevating their status within the Confucian tradition. Together with the Analects and Mencius, these texts became known as the Four Books. Zhu Xi's interpretations significantly influenced Chinese society, education, and state ideology.

Following the decision of the Yuan dynasty—and later upheld by the Ming and Qing dynasties—to adopt the Five Classics and the Four Books as the orthodox texts of Confucianism, these works became the standard curriculum for the imperial civil service examinations. From 1313 to 1905, mastery of these texts was essential for anyone pursuing official positions, and thus, the Book of Rites, along with its derivative works, played a central role in shaping Chinese intellectual and bureaucratic life for centuries.

Comparisons The editor of the Han Feizi, W.K. Liao (1939), contrasted the sixth chapter of the Han Feizi with the Book of Rites (Li Ji), interpreting parts of the chapter as "diametrically opposed to the Confucian spirit" and the vision of the "Great Community of Confucius." Elements of the Han Feizi have also been compared to the Daodejing, highlighting philosophical differences between Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism.Liao, W.K. (1939). The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu. Arthur Probsthain. Chapter VI. Having Regulations: A Memorial; Footnotes.

Contents + Table of contents ## Chinese Pinyin Translation 01-02 Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1 & 2 03-04 Tangong Part 1 & 2 05 Royal Regulations 06 Proceedings of Government in the Different Months 07 Questions of Zengzi 08 King Wen as Son and Heir 09 The Conveyance of Rites 10 Implements of Rites 11 Single Victim At The Border Sacrifices 12 Pattern of the Family 13 Jade-Bead Pendants of the Royal Cap 14 Places in the Hall of Distinction 15 Record of Smaller Matters in the Dress of Mourning 16 Great Treatise 17 Smaller Rules of Demeanour 18 Record on the Subject of Education 19 Record on the Subject of Music 20-21 Miscellaneous Records Part 1 & 2 22 Greater Record of Mourning Rites 23 Law of Sacrifices 24 Meaning of Sacrifices 25 A Summary Account of Sacrifices 26 Different Teaching of the Different Kings 27 Questions of Duke Ai 28 Zhongni at Home at Ease 29 Confucius at Home at Leisure 30 Record of the Dykes 31 Doctrine of the Mean 32 Record on Example 33 Black Robes 34 Rules on Hurrying to Mourning Rites 35 Questions About Mourning Rites 36 Subjects For Questioning About the Mourning Dress 37 Treatise on Subsidiary Points in Mourning Usages 38 Questions About the Mourning for Three Years 39 Long Dress in One Piece 40 Game of Pitch-Pot 41 Conduct of the Scholar 42 Great Learning 43 Meaning of the Ceremony of Capping 44 Meaning of the Marriage Ceremony 45 Meaning of the Drinking Festivity in the Districts 46 Meaning of the Ceremony of Archery 47 Meaning of the Banquet 48 Meaning of Interchange of Missions twixt Different Courts 49 Four Principles Underlying the Dress of Mourning

References

Bibliography Buckley Ebrey, Patricia. Confucianism and the Family Rituals in Imperial China. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1991, Chen, Jingpan. Confucius as a Teacher. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1990, Confucius; James Legge; Chʻu Chai; Winberg Chai. Li Chi: Book of Rites. An encyclopedia of ancient ceremonial usages, religious creeds, and social institutions, New Hyde Park, N.Y., University Books . (originally published in 1885) Creel, H.G. Confucius and the Chinese Way. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1949

de Bary, Wm. Theodore, Wing-tsit Chan, and Buton Watson. Sources of Chinese Tradition. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1960, Holm, Jean, and John Bowker. Sacred Writings. London: Printer Publishers Ltd., 1994 Lin Yutang. The Wisdom of Confucius. New York: Random House, Inc., 1938

Puett, Michael. "Centering the Realm: Wang Mang, the Zhouli, and Early Chinese Statecraft." in Elman, Benjamin A. and Kern, Martin, eds., Statecraft and Classical Learning: the Rituals of Zhou in East Asian History, pp. 129–154.

Smith, Howard. Confucius. Great Britain: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973

External links

The Book of Rites (Chinese and English, James Legge's 1885 translation) - Chinese Text Project Confucian Documents (English) Liji The Book of Rites, Ulrich Theobald, Chinese Literature, 24 July 2010.