are a genre of Japanese art consisting of painted or woodblock print images of ghosts, demons and other supernatural beings. They are considered to be a subgenre of , "pictures of manners and customs".Schaap 1998, 17 These types of art works reached the peak of their popularity in Japan in the mid- to late 19th century.Addis 1985, 178
Yūrei Literally translatable as ' ', yūrei is just one of several Japanese words used to refer to spirit beings. Other terms include: , , , and . There is a long tradition of belief in the supernatural in Japan stemming from a variety of influences. Imported sources include Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folklore. The most notable influence, however, is Shintō, a native Japanese animistic religion which presupposes that our physical world is inhabited by eight million omnipresent spirits.Rubin 2000
Japanese ghosts are essentially spirits "on leave" from hell in order to complete an outstanding mission.Richie 1983, 7 The of those who die violently, do not receive proper funerary rites, or die while consumed by a desire for vengeance, do not pass peacefully to join the spirits of their ancestors in the afterlife. Instead, their reikon souls are transformed into ayurei souls, which can travel back to the physical world.Monstrous.com According to Buddhist belief, the journey from to takes 49 days, and it is in this limbo-like phase that they can attend to unresolved issues.Iwasaki and Toelken 1994, 15 There is a close relationship between the degree of an individual's suffering in life and the severity of their actions in the afterlife.Jordan 1985, 27 While their intentions are not always evil, the results of their actions are almost always damaging for the humans involved. Belief held that a ghost could only receive release through the prayers of a living individual that his/her soul be allowed to pass into the underworld.
Historical background
Images of supernatural beings, as well as gory and grotesque scenes exist on Japanese painted scrolls going back to the medieval period. This tradition continued through the centuries, providing a foundation for , as well as for violent and , which were to become popular in Edo Japan.Fensom 2012 Although there are prior examples, reached the pinnacle of their popularity in the mid- through late 19th century, along with ghost themed kabuki plays and . Scholars link the "persistent popularity"Bell 2004, 140 of the occult to the "unsettled social conditions" prevailing during the late Edo, which included the oppressive Tokugawa regime, the beginnings of westernization, and a number of natural disasters.See Addis 1985, 178; Rubin 2000; Harris 2010, 156; Schaap 1998, 17In addition to floods and earthquakes, Japan was blighted by a series of droughts which led to twenty periods of famine between 1675 and 1837 (Dolan and Worden 1994)
and theatre
Japan has long had a vibrant folkloric tradition of ghost stories, and in the early eighteenth century these began to be dramatized for the nō stage and bunraku puppet theatre. As kabuki began to flourish throughout the later 1700s, so too did the number of dramas based on ghost stories, particularly those involving vengeful female ghosts returning to punish their wrong-doers. Kabuki, like , was a populist art form, which aimed to satisfy the dramatic tastes of a "proletarian clientele": the rising working and middle classes in Edo (present-day Tokyo).Addis 1985, 179 Kabuki and shared a close kinship, as woodblock artists attempted to tap into "the public's ever-increasing appetite for tales of the bizarre and thrilling", and share the kabuki audience demographic. As Sarah Fensom notes, "that prints of the macabre, the supernatural and the grotesque were so frequently designed and distributed is for the most part a greater reflection of 19th century Japanese tastes than of the agenda of the artists."2013 Artists produced images of ghosts as well as of actors in ghost roles, effecting a conflation of three prevailing trends in of the period: depictions of the female form (bijin-ga), depictions of supernatural or macabre themes, and depictions of celebrated actors (kabuki-e or shibai-e).
Censorship In an attempt to return Japan to its feudal, agrarian roots, the Tokugawa regime in 1842 instituted the , a collection of laws governing many aspects of everyday life. In addition to the economy, the military, agriculture and religion, the Reforms reached into the world of art.Encyclopædia Britannica, Tempō Reforms The intent of the Reforms was essentially to valorize frugality and loyalty,The Fitzwilliam Museum thus ostentatious or morally dubious images such as depictions of geisha, oiran courtesans and kabuki actors were banned. According to an 1842 decree aimed at print publishers: "To make woodblock prints of Kabuki actors, courtesans and geisha is detrimental to public morals. Henceforth the publication of new works [of this kind] as well as the sale of previously procured stocks is strictly forbidden. In future you are to select designs that are based on loyalty and filial piety and which serve to educate women and children, and you must insure that they are not luxurious."
Given this climate of censorship, some artists used the genre "to symbolically and humorously disguise … criticism of the social and political maladies of the day by having fantastic creatures appear as substitutes for real people, especially the ruling elite."Harris 2010, 156 Such critiques led the government to subsequently ban both and ghost plays. The Tempō Reforms were ultimately unsuccessful, and the strict regulation of art works was no longer enforced after 1845, once the shogunal advisor who had initiated the Reforms left the government.Jesse 2012, 95 As long as the rules remained nominally in effect, some artists invoked clever word- and picture-play to circumvent censorship.
physical characteristics
The ghosts featured in Edo period come in various forms. They can appear as animal creatures both real and imagined, such as foxes, cats, dragons and demons. They can also be the discontent spirits of male warriors.Fensom 2013 Most of the ghosts featured, however, tend to be female, "specifically", as Donald Richie notes, "dissatisfied females".1983, 6
The subjects in typically correspond to a very specific set of physical characteristics:Jordan 1985, 25Davisson 2012 long, straight black hair, which is often unkempt white or pale-coloured kimono akin to the plain white or funerary kimono long, flowing sleeves some are depicted with a triangular forehead cloth also associated with Japanese funerary tradition a thin, fragile frame outstretched arms, sometimes waving or beckoning hands hanging limply from the wrists no body below the waist often accompanied by , green, blue or purple floating flames transparent or semi-transparent
By nature, they:Richie 1983, 6 are nocturnal avoid running water appear in true ghostly guise when reflected in a mirror or water surface
Notable Edo examples
The Ghost of Oyuki The earliest is considered to be by Maruyama Ōkyo (円山 応挙), founder of the Maruyama school and one of the most significant artists of the 18th century.Encyclopædia Britannica, Maruyama Ōkyo is a silk scroll painting dating to the second half of the 18th century Jordan suggests the painting was produced when Maruyama was “in his mid-forties” (1985, 33n), which would make it c. 1778; however, Stevenson states that it was completed for the shogun in or around 1760 (1983, 10), and yet another source believes it to date from 1750 (Chin Music Press). In Maruyama's naturalistic style,Apocryphally, Maruyama once painted such a realistic ghost image that it came to life and terrified him. The incident is immortalized in a painting by Taiso Yoshitoshi (1839-1892) entitled 'Yoshitoshi Ryakuga'. (Art History Reference) it depicts a faintly coloured female ghost whose body tapers into transparency. It has been described as an "image of haunting beauty".Jordan 1985, 26 According to a scroll box inscription by a one-time owner, the subject of the painting is Maruyama's lover,Stevenson suggests that in the absence of the subject, Maruyama’s dying aunt acted as his model (1983, 10) a geisha who died young. Her ghost is said to have visited the artist in a dream and inspired him to paint her portrait.
Other Edo artists All of the pre-eminent artists of the later Edo period produced , including Kunisada, HokusaiSee the 1831 series One Hundred [Ghost] Tales (Hyaku monogatari) and Utagawa Kuniyoshi, who "designed the largest number of prints portraying ghosts as well as other strange, unusual and fantastic creatures."
Another major producer of was Tsukioka Yoshitoshi who reputedly had personal encounters with ghosts in 1865 and 1880. In 1865 he produced the series One Hundred Ghost Stories of China and Japan (Wakan hyaku monogatari), his first series to feature ghosts. The original series, which was based on a popular game of the period involving ghost stories, included one hundred images; however, only twenty-six were published.Chiappa, J. Noel and Levine, Jason M. 2009 His final print series, New Forms of 36 Ghosts (), was "so freakishly popular", according to Sarah Fensom, "that the blocks from which it was printed wore out."
Contemporary examples
Although patently no longer as pervasive as during the late Edo period, and contemporary variations continue to be produced by Japanese artists in various media. One prominent example is the nihonga painter Fuyuko Matsui (b. 1974), whose ghostly images are described as "beautiful and eerie",Japan Echo "dark [and] Gothic", and "disturbing and mesmerizing".Liddell Matsui has identified a goal of her works as imparting "a condition that maintains sanity while being close to madness". Matsui's colour on silk hanging scroll "Nyctalopia" (2005) is particularly reminiscent of classic such as Maruyama's The Ghost of Oyuki.See image at
Another artist whose works echo is Hisashi Tenmyouya (b. 1966). Between 2004 and 2005, Tenmyouya completed a series of acrylic on wood paintings entitled New Version of Six Ghost Stories (新形六怪撰). The six images are reworkings of famous Japanese ghost stories, such as Tokaido Yotsuya Ghost Story and Kohata Koheiji Ghost Story, which were rendered in woodblocks by Edo artists.See images at
Also creating contemporary in a traditional style is American-born, Japanese-resident artist Matthew Meyer. His Japanese Yōkai series is collected in his illustrated book The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons. According to Meyer, the intention of his paintings is "to recreate the feeling of old Japanese woodblock prints while adding a contemporary illustrative touch."
The influence of is also evident in the manga of Shigeru Mizuki (b. 1922) and Hiroshi Shiibashi (b. 1980), both of whom are renowned for their works dealing with traditional Japanese aspects of the supernatural.
See also Edo period in popular culture Satori (folklore) List of legendary creatures from Japan
Notes
References Addis, Stephen. "Conclusion: The Supernatural in Japanese Art". In Japanese Ghosts and Demons: Art of the Supernatural, edited by Stephen Addis, 177–179. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1985. Art History Reference. "Maruyama Okyo (1733–1795)". Accessed September 14, 2013. http://arthistoryreference.com/a1/54567.htm Bell, David. Ukiyo-e Explained. Kent, UK: Global Oriental, 2004. Chiappa, J. Noel and Levine, Jason M. "Yoshitoshi's 'One Hundred Ghost Stories of China and Japan(1865)". Yoshitoshi.net. 2009. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.yoshitoshi.net/series/100ghosts.html Chin Music Press. "The Ghost of Oyuki". Accessed September 13, 2013. http://store.chinmusicpress.com/product/the-ghost-of-oyuki-chapbook Davisson, Zack. "What is the White Kimono Japanese Ghosts Wear?" April 2012. Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai. Accessed September 2013. http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/04/04/what-is-the-white-kimono-japanese-ghosts-wear/