Muskogean (, ; also Muskhogean) is a language family spoken in the Southeastern United States. The state with the largest population of speakers today is Oklahoma. Members of the family are Indigenous languages of the Americas. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly synthetic and agglutinative. One documented language, Apalachee, is no longer spoken, and the remaining languages are critically endangered.
Genetic relationships
Family division The Muskogean family consists of Alabama, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (or Creek), Koasati, Apalachee, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki.Jack B. Martin. "Muskogean" The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America Vol. 13.2 (2023) p. 1577–1600 Hitchiti is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki.Hardy 2005, p. 69 "Seminole" is sometimes used for either a dialect of Muscogee spoken in Oklahoma,(Hardy 2005: 70; see also Mithun 2005: 462, Martin 2023) or to refer to the Mikasuki which is the ancestral language of most Florida Seminoles, while "Cow Creek Seminole" more specifically refers to a dialect of Muscogee spoken by a minority of Seminoles in Florida.
The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee.Broadwell 1992, p. 1Hardy 2005, p. 70Martin & Munro 2005, p. 299 Apalachee is no longer spoken; its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain, but Mary Haas and Pamela Munro both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.Broadwell 1992, pp. 3; 41–42, footnote 2
Haas's classification For connections among these groupings, one influential classification is that of Mary Haas and Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee.Hardy 2005, pp. 70-71 That classification is reflected in the list below:Mithun 2005, p. 461Campbell 1997, p. 147Martin, Jack B. 2004. Languages. Handbook of North American Indians. "The Southeast". Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian.
Muskogean Western Muskogean Chickasaw Choctaw (also called Chahta, Chacato) Eastern Muskogean Muscogee (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and Creek) Hitchiti-Mikasuki (also called Miccosukee or Seminole) Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati Apalachee Alabama (also called Alibamu) Koasati (also called Coushatta)
Munro's classification A different classification has been proposed by Pamela Munro. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is then subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw). The classification is reflected in the list below:Campbell 1997, p. 148
Muskogean Northern Muskogean Muscogee Southern Muskogean Hitchiti-Mikasuki Southwestern Muskogean Apalachee Alabama–Koasati Alabama Koasati Western Muskogean Chickasaw Choctaw
Broader relationships Possible Muskogean languages Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the Yamasee and Guale were Muskogean.Campbell 1997, p. 149Broadwell 1992, pp. 41–42, fn. 2 However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown.Sturtevant 1994, referenced in Campbell 1997, p. 149 It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale., National Register Multiple Property Submission The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of Hitchiti, Coweta, and Cussita.
The Amacano, Chacato, Chine, Pacara, and Pensacola people, who lived along the Gulf Coast of Florida from the Big Bend Coast to Pensacola Bay, are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.Milanich:95, 96Coker:6Swanton:136
Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the in Cofitachequi in northeastern South Carolina. If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby Siouan and Iroquoian speakers in the late 17th century.Hudson, Charles The Juan Pardo Expeditions Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990, pp. 68–73, 75
A vocabulary of the Houma may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of Mobilian Jargon, a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.
Gulf
The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is Mary Haas' Gulf hypothesis, in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of language isolates of the southeastern US: Atakapa, Chitimacha, Tunica, and Natchez. While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists.Campbell 1997, pp. 305–09 Some Muskogean scholars continue to assert that Muskogean is related to Natchez.Campbell 1997, p. 305
Features Nouns Nouns in Muskogean languages may take prefixes indicating the person and number of a possessor. Noun phrases may be marked for grammatical case, with a distinction between subjects (nominative case) and nonsubjects (oblique case). Some Muskogean languages have affixes indicating plural nouns (generally human nouns) or groups.
Verbs Muskogean verbs are highly synthetic, with affixes for tense, aspect, person, number, direction, and mood. While case marking is nominative–accusative, person marking is active–stative, with separate series of agent, patient, and indirect object person markers.
Verbs have a complex system of ablaut indicating aspect. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades" or "themes".
All the languages make use of suppletive verbs indicating the number of the subject in an intransitive verb or the number of the direct object in a transitive verb.
Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:
Vocabulary Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):
gloss Chickasaw Choctaw Alabama Mikasuki Muscogee all mõma mõma óyha maamos- omalka ashes hottok hitokchobi histo tolhambi iisso belly ittakoba' iffoka ikfi lampi nalhki big ishto chito coba coob- lhakkii bird foshi' hoshi foosi foosi foswa bite kisili kopooli kachalhlhi kabalikci akkita black losa losa loca looci lasti blood issish issish lhakhani picikci caati bone foni' foni cokfoni -fooni iffoni breast ip shik ip shik pisi owaaci hokpi burn lowa lowah libatli yill- noklhita claw iyyakchosh iyyakchosh iyyaksi iiyakoosi ilinkososwa cloud hoshonti hoshõti onoolici hosoti aholocii cold kapassa kapassa kasatka kapaali kasappi come minti m ti ila ont- atita die illi illi illi il- ilita dog ofi' ofi ifa iifi ifa drink ishko ishko isko isk- iskita dry shila shila solotka sokook- kalhpii ear haksibis haksobish hakco hacoobi hakco earth yakni' yakni ihaani yakni iikana eat impa pa ipa imp- hompita egg akankoshi' akãkoshi akaakocóòsi onaasi costaki eye ishkin nishkin ittilhi iti tolhwa fat (grease) niha bila nitokci niihi nihaa fire lowak lowak tikba iiti tootka fish nani' nani lhalho lhaalhi lhalho fly, to wakaa hika wakayka yakaal- tamkita foot iyyi' iyyi iyyi iyi ili full kayya kayya kayya labakni fackita give ima ima inka iik- imita good chokma achokma kano hiilhi h lhi green okchamali okchamaali okcakko honotbitalakci laani hair pãshi'/hishi' pãshi/hishi hissi tokisi issi hand ilbak ibbak ilbi ilbi inki head ishkobo' noshkobo isbakko yoosi ika hear hánglo haklo haalo hakl- pohita heart chõkash chõkash conoska conosbi fiiki horn lapish lapish lapihci lap-i yapi I ano' ano ana aani ani kill abi abi ibi ill c iliicita knee iyyinto'lhka' iyyi kalaaha ittôlhpa tolhpi tolhkowa know ithána ikhana sobayli ataalh kilhlhita lie down, to tí'wa talaaya baláàli talaal wakkita liver salakha salakha illopi lopi lopi long falaa falaaya baski backi capki louse issap issap icha hicahci icka man hattak nakni' hattak nakni naani nakni honanwa many lawa lawa lawa aconki solkii meat (flesh) nipi' nipi nipo akni apiswa mountain onchaba habik bokkoscaaha iikanhalwii mouth iti itialbi icokhalbi ici cokwa name holhchifo hohchifo holcifa hocilki hocifka neck nokhistap ikkõla nokbi nokbi nokwa new himitta himmona hahpa himaci mocasi night oklhili' ninak tanka niilhaki nilhii nose ibichchala' ibishakni ibisaani ibi yopoo not ki'yo kiiyo mánko maati monks one chaffa achaffa caffaaka lhaamin hamkin person (human) hattak hattak aati yaati isti rain omba õba oyba okoob- oskita red homma homma homma kitisci caati road (path) hina' hina hini hini nini root haksish hakshish assikci aski yalomka round lhibokta kalaaha bonotka polocki polooki say aachi aachi manka kaac maakita sand shinok shinok sanco samooci oktaaha see p sa p sa hicha hica hicita seed nihi' nihi hilhikci yiilhi nilhka sit bínni'li biniili cokóòli cokool- leykita skin hakshop hakshop affakci halbi halhpi sleep nosi nosi noci nooc- nocita small iskanno'si osi cinoofa wink- cotki smoke shobohli shobohli sobotli ockoci ikkoci stand híkki'ya hikiiya lokóòli lokooka hoylhita star foshik fichik hociilhi owaaciki kocacampa stone tali' tali tali tali cato sun hashi' hashi hasi haasi hasi swim yopi okshiniili oohapka opahk- omeyyita tail hasimbish has bis haci haaci haci that yamma ma akki ma ma this yappa pa ya ya ya thou ishno' chishno isna cihn- ciimi tongue isõlash ittõlas icoolaksi cokolaasi tolaaswa tooth noti' noti innati -nooti noti tree itti' itti itto ahi ito two toklo toklo tôklo toklan hokkoolin walk nõwa nowa ciyahli cayahl yakapita warm (hot) lashpa lashpa ikba hãyyi hayyita water oka' oka oki ooki oywa we poshno' pishno posna pohni poomi what nanta natah náàsi naaki naaki white tohbi tohbi hatka hatki hatki who kata katah náksi noolh- isteyma woman ihoo ohooyo tayyi tayki hoktii yellow lakna lakna laana lakni laanii
Proto-language
Phonology Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in IPA transcription):Booker 2005
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Median Lateral Plain Labialized Stops Affricates Fricatives Nasals Approximants Other *θ [n̥]
The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as and show up as and (or Booker 2005, pg. 254), respectively, in all Muskogean languages;Booker 2005, pp. 248, 252, 254 they are therefore reconstructed by some as and .Martin & Munro 2005, p. 318, fn. 2 appears as in all the daughter languages except Muscogee for which it is initially and medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written (or ) is unknown;Booker 2005, p. 286, footnote 7 it appears as in Western Muskogean languages and as in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless (that is, ), based partly on presumed cognates in Natchez.Booker 2005, pp. 251–52
References
Further reading Booker, Karen. (2005). "Muskogean Historical Phonology." In Hardy, Heather Kay and Scancarelli, Janine (eds.), Native languages of the Southeastern United States, 246–298. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. . Coker, William S. (1999) "Pensacola, 1686–1821." in Judith Anne Bense. (1999) Editor. Archaeology of colonial Pensacola. University Press of Florida. Found at Google Books