The grammar of Old Saxon is highly inflected, similar to that of Old English or Latin. As an ancient Germanic language, the morphological system of Old Saxon is similar to that of the hypothetical Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including characteristically Germanic constructions such as the umlaut. Among living languages, Old Saxon morphology most closely resembles that of modern High German.
Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners were fully inflected with five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental), two grammatical numbers (singular and plural) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter).
First- and second-person personal pronouns also had dual forms for referring to groups of two people, in addition to the usual singular and plural forms. The instrumental case was somewhat rare and occurred mostly in the masculine singular, but also sometimes in the neuter singular. It never occurred in the feminine nor plural. Instrumental could typically be replaced by the dative.
Adjectives, pronouns and (sometimes) participles agreed with their antecedent nouns in case, number, and gender. Finite verbs agreed with their subject in person and number.
Nouns came in numerous declensions (with deep parallels in Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit). Verbs came in ten main conjugations (seven strong and two weak + the remains of a third weak class), each with numerous subtypes, as well as a few additional smaller conjugations and a handful of irregular verbs.
The main difference from other ancient Indo-European languages, such as Latin, is that verbs can be conjugated in only two tenses (vs. the six "tenses" – really tense/aspect combinations – of Latin), and, like Old English, have no synthetic passive voice (although it did still exist in Gothic).
Gender in nouns was grammatical, as opposed to the natural gender that prevails in modern English. That is, the grammatical gender of a given noun did not necessarily correspond to its natural gender, even for nouns referring to people. For example, thiu sunna (the Sun) was feminine, thê mâno (the Moon) was masculine, and that wîf "the woman/wife" was neuter. (Compare Old English sēo sunne (f.), se mōna (m.) and þæt wīf (n.), but also modern German die Sonne, der Mond, das Weib.) Pronominal usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender, when it is conflicted.
Morphology
Verbs Verbs in Old Saxon are divided into strong and weak verbs. Strong verbs indicate tense by a change in the quality of a vowel, while weak verbs indicate tense by the addition of an ending.
Here is a quick sum up of all the Old Saxon classes of strong and weak verbs. More information on these classes are given below.
Strong verbsWeak verbsConjugationPronoun'to ride''to fly''to help''to break''to speak''to travel''to wield''to deem''to declare''to say'Infinitive rīdan fliogan helpan brekan sprekan faran waldan dōmian mahlōn seggianPresent indicativeik rīdu fliugu hilpu briku spriku faru waldu dōmiu mahlo(n) seggiuthū rīdis fliugis hilpis brikis sprikis feris weldis dōmis mahlos sageshē/it/siu rīdid fliugid hilpid brikid sprikid ferid weldid dōmid mahlod sagedwī/gī/sia rīdad fliogad helpad brekad sprekad farad waldad dōmiad mahliod seggiadPast indicativeik/hē/it/siu rēd flōg help brak sprak fōr wēld dōmda mahloda sagdathū ridi flugi hulpi brāki sprāki fōri wēldi dōmdes mahlodes sagdeswī/gī/sia ridun flugun hulpun brākun sprākun fōrun wēldun dōmdun mahlodun sagdunPresent subjunctive ik/hē/it/siu rīde flioge helpe breke spreke fare walde dōmie mahlo seggiethū rīdes flioges helpes brekes sprekes fares waldes dōmies mahlos seggieswī/gī/sia rīden fliogen helpen breken spreken faren walden dōmien mahlion seggienPast subjunctiveik/hē/it/siu ridi flugi hulpi brāki sprāki fōri wēldi dōmdi mahlodi sagdithū ridis flugis hulpis brākis sprākis fōris wēldis dōmdis mahlodis sagdiswī/gī/sia ridin flugin hulpin brākin sprākin fōrin wēldin dōmdin mahlodin sagdin ImperativeSingular rīd fliog help brek sprek far wald dōmi mahlo sage Plural rīdad fliogad helpad brekad sprekad farad waldad dōmiad mahliod seggiad Present participle rīdandi fliogandi helpandi brekandi sprekandi farandi waldandi dōmiandi mahlondi seggiandiPast participle (gi)ridan (gi)flogan (gi)holpan (gi)brokan (gi)sprekan (gi)faran (gi)waldan (gi)dōmid (gi)mahlod (gi)sagd
Strong verbs
Strong verbs use the Germanic form of conjugation known as ablaut. In this form of conjugation, the stem of the word changes to indicate the tense. Verbs like this persist in modern English; for example sing, sang, sung is a strong verb, as is swim, swam, swum and choose, chose, chosen. The root portion of the word changes rather than its ending. In Old English, there were seven major classes of a strong verb; each class has its own pattern of stem changes. Learning these is often a challenge for students of the language, though English speakers may see connections between the old verb classes and their modern forms.
The classes had the following distinguishing features to their infinitive stems: <li>ī + one consonant. <li>io or ū + one consonant. <li>e or i + two consonants. <li>e + 1 consonant (usually l or r, plus the verb brekan 'to break'). <li>e + 1 consonant (usually a stop or a fricative). <li>a + 1 consonant. <li>Other than the above. Always a heavy root syllable (either a long vowel or short + two consonants), almost always a non-umlauted vowel – e.g. ō, ā, ē, a. Infinitive is distinguishable from class 1 weak verbs by non-umlauted root vowel; from class 1 weak verbs by lack of suffix -ian and from class 2 weak verbs by lack of suffix -ōn. First and second preterite have identical stems, usually in io (occ. ē), and the infinitive and the past participle also have the same stem. Stem changes in strong verbsClassRoot weightInfinitiveFirst preteriteSecond preteritePast participleI heavy ī ē i II io or ū ō u oIII e or i a o or uIV light e(+r/l) ā oV e(+other) eVI a ō aVII heavy ō, ā, ē, a ē or io same as infinitive
The first preterite stem is used in the preterite, for the first- and third-person singular. The second preterite stem is used for second-person singular, and all persons in the plural (as well as the preterite subjunctive). Strong verbs also exhibit i-mutation of the stem in the second- and third-person singular in the present tense, and sometimes in the first person as well (especially class II, III, IV and V verbs).
Regular strong verbs were all conjugated roughly the same, with the main differences being in the stem vowel. Thus stelan 'to steal' represents the strong verb conjugation paradigm.
ConjugationPronoun'steal'Infinitives stelan tō/te stelannePresent indicativeikstiluthū stilishē/it/siu stilidwī/gī/sia steladPast indicativeik/hē/it/siu stalthū stāliwī/gī/sia stālunPresent subjunctiveik/hē/it/siustele thū steleswī/gī/sia stelenPast subjunctiveik/hē/it/siustāli thū stāliswī/gī/sia stālinImperativeSingularstel Plural stelad Present participle stelandiPast participle (gi)stolan
Weak verbs
The past and past-participle forms of weak verbs are formed with a (t or d) added to the end of the stem. Some modern English examples of this are love, loved or look, looked.
Originally, the weak ending was used to form the preterite of informal, noun-derived verbs such as often emerge in conversation and which have no established system of stem-change. By nature, these verbs were almost always transitive, and even today, most weak verbs are transitive verbs formed in the same way. The same process is found in Old English, and throughout the history of the English language. As English came into contact with non-Germanic languages, it invariably borrowed useful verbs which lacked established stem-change patterns. Rather than inventing and standardizing new classes or learning foreign conjugations, English speakers simply applied the weak ending to the foreign bases. The same process also happened with Dutch, German and occurs in modern Germanic languages.
There are three major classes of weak verbs in Old Saxon. The two first classes are recognizable as all their infinitives have the same ending -ian (1st class) and -ōn/-oian (2nd class). There is also a third class explained below, also ending with -ian.
Class-one verbs with short roots exhibit gemination of the final stem consonant in certain forms. Geminated ⟨f⟩ appears as ⟨bb⟩, and that of ⟨g⟩ appears as ⟨gg⟩.
Class-two verbs are recognizable in having an o-theme throughout the whole conjugation.
The following table shows the conjugation of three verbs: swebbian, "to put to sleep" is a class-one verb exhibiting gemination and an epenthetic vowel; dēlian "to share, deal" is a class-one verb exhibiting neither gemination nor an epenthetic vowel; galpon 'to cry' is a class-two verb. ConjugationPronoun'put to sleep''deal''journey'Infinitives swebbian dēlian galpon tō/te swebbianne tō/te dēlianne tō/te galponnePresent indicativeik swebbiu dēliu galpo(n)thū sweƀis dēlis galposhē/it/siu sweƀid dēlid galpodwī/gī/sia swebbiad dēliad galpiodPast indicativeik/hē/it/siu sweƀida dēlda galpodathū sweƀides dēldes galpodeswī/gī/sia sweƀidun dēldun galpodunPresent subjunctiveik/hē/it/siuswebbie dēlie galpo thū swebbies dēlies galposwī/gī/sia swebbien dēlien galpionPast subjunctiveik/hē/it/siusweƀidi dēldi galpodi thū sweƀidis dēldis galpodiswī/gī/sia sweƀidin dēldin galpodinImperativeSingularsweƀi dēli galpo Plural swebbiad dēliad galpiod Present participle swebbiandi dēliandi galpondiPast participle (gi)sweƀid (gi)dēlid (gi)galpod
Preterite-present verbs The preterite-present verbs are a class of verbs which have a present tense in the form of a strong preterite and a past tense like the past of a weak verb. These verbs derive from the subjunctive or optative use of preterite forms to refer to present or future time. For example, witan, "to know" comes from a verb which originally meant "to have seen". The present singular is formed from the original singular preterite stem and the present plural from the original plural preterite stem. As a result of this history, the first-person singular and third-person singular are the same in the present.
Few preterite present appear in the Old Saxon corpus, and some are not attested in all forms.
ConjugationPronoun'know how to''be able to''be obliged''to know''own''to avail''dare to do''to remember''to need''be allowed''allow''have use of'Infinitives kunnan mugan skulan witan ēgan dugan *(gi-)durran far-munan thurƀan mōtan gi-unnan *gi-nuganPresent Indicativeik/hē/it/siu kan mag, mah skal wēt ēh dōg, dōh gidar far-man tharf mōt gi-an ginahthū kanst maht skalt wēst ēhst *dōht *(gi)darst far-manst tharft mōst gi-anst *ginahtwī/gī/sia kunnun mugun skulun witun ēgun dugun (gi)durrun *far-munun thurƀun mōtun *gi-unnun *ginugunPast Indicative ik/hē/it/siu konsta mohta skolda wissa ēhta dohta (gi)dorsta far-monsta thorfta mōsta gi-onsta *ginohtathū konstes mohtes skoldes wisses ēhtes *dohtes *(gi)dorstes *far-monstes thorftes mōstes *gi-onstes *ginohteswī/gī/sia konstun mohtun skoldun wissun ēhtun *dohtun (gi)dorstun far-monstun thorftun mōstun *gi-onstun *ginohtunPresent subjunctiveik/hē/it/siu kunni mugi skuli witi ēgi dugi *(gi)durri far-muni thurƀi mōti *gi-unni *ginugithū kunnis mugis skulis witis ēgis *dugis *(gi)durris *far-munis thurƀis mōtis *gi-unnis *ginugiswī/gī/sia kunnin mugin skulin witin ēgin *dugin *(gi)durrin far-munin thurƀin mōtin *gi-unnin *ginuginik/hē/it/siuPast subjunctive konsti mohti skoldi wissi ēhti *dohti gidorsti far-monsti thorfti mōsti *gi-onsti *ginohtithū konstis mohtis skoldis wissis ēhtis *dohtis *(gi)dorstis *far-monstis thorftis mōstis *gi-onstis *ginohtiswī/gī/sia konstin mohtin skoldin wissin ēhtin *dohtin gidorstin *far-monstin thorftin mōstin *gi-onstin *ginohtin
[Forms above with asterisk (*) unattested]
Anomalous verbs