The United States Congress authorized the original six frigates of the United States Navy with the Naval Act of 1794 on March 27, 1794, at a total cost of $688,888.82 (equivalent to $ in ). These ships were built during the formative years of the United States Navy, on the recommendation of designer Joshua Humphreys for a fleet of frigates powerful enough to engage any frigates of the French or British navies, yet fast enough to evade any ship of the line.
One of these original six, the , is still in commission and is the world's oldest commissioned naval warship still afloat.
Purpose
After the Revolutionary War, a heavily indebted United States disbanded the Continental Navy, and in August 1785, lacking funds for ship repairs, sold its last remaining warship, the .Daughan (2008), p. 240.Fowler (1984), p. 8. But almost simultaneously troubles began in the Mediterranean when Algiers seized two American merchant ships and held their crews for ransom.Daughan (2008), p. 242.Fowler (1984), pp. 6–7. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson suggested an American naval force to protect American shipping in the Mediterranean, but his recommendations were initially met with indifference, as were the recommendations of John Jay, who proposed building five 40-gun warships.Fowler (1984), pp. 8–9. Shortly afterward, Portugal began blockading Algerian ships from entering the Atlantic Ocean, thus providing temporary protection for American merchant ships.Allen (1905), p. 15.Fowler (1984), p. 9.
Piracy against American merchant shipping had not been a problem when under the protection of the Royal Navy prior to the Revolutionary War, but after the Revolutionary War the "Barbary States" of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis felt they could harass American merchant ships without penalty.Smelser (1959), p. 8.Allen (1905), p. 13. Additionally, after the French Revolutionary War began, Britain and France both began interdicting and seizing American merchantmen trading with the other nation. Lacking a proper navy, the American government could do little to prevent such seizures.Daughan (2008), pp. 276–277.Smelser (1959), pp. 48–51.
The formation of a naval force had been a topic of debate in the new American republic for years. Opponents argued that building a navy would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would further lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity". Those opposed to a navy felt that payment of tribute to the Barbary States and economic sanctions against Britain and France were a better alternative.Smelser (1959), pp. 5–20.Allen (1909), p. 42.
In 1793, Portugal reached a peace agreement with Algeria, ending its blockade of the Mediterranean, thus allowing Algerian ships back into the Atlantic Ocean. By late in the year, eleven American merchant ships had been captured. This, combined with the continuing seizure of American merchantmen by European powers, finally led President George Washington to request Congress to authorize a navy.Daughan (2008), pp. 278–279.Fowler (1984), pp. 16–17.
On January 2, 1794, by a narrow margin of 46–44, the House of Representatives voted to authorize building a navy and formed a committee to determine the size, cost, and type of ships to be built. Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of warships.Daughan (2008), p. 279.Fowler (1984), p. 18. To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill, the Federalist Party inserted a clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction of the ships should the United States reach a peace agreement with Algiers.Smelser (1959), p. 57.
The bill was presented to the House on March 10 and passed as the Naval Act of 1794 by a margin of 50–39, and without division in the Senate on March 19.Daughan (2008), pp. 279–281. President Washington signed the Act on March 27. It provided for acquisition, by purchase or otherwise, of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each.Daughan (2008), p. 281. It also provided pay and sustenance for naval officers, sailors and marines, and outlined how each ship should be manned in order to operate them. The Act appropriated $688,888.82 (equivalent to $ in ) to finance the work.An Act to provide a Naval Armament. (1794). Library of Congress. Retrieved February 17, 2010.Allen (1905), p. 49.
Design and preparations
With the formation of a Department of the Navy still several years away, responsibility for design and construction fell to the Department of War, headed by Secretary Henry Knox. As early as 1790 Knox had consulted various authorities regarding ship design. Discussions of the designs were carried out in person at meetings in Philadelphia. Little is known about these discussions due to a lack of written correspondence, making determination of the actual designers involved difficult to assemble. Secretary Knox reached out to ship architects and builders in Philadelphia, which was the largest seaport in North America at the time and possibly the largest freshwater port in the world. This meant that many discussions of ship design took place in Knox's office, resulting in few if any records of these discussions being available to historians. Joshua Humphreys is generally credited as the designer of the six frigates, but Revolutionary War ship captains John Foster Williams and John Barry and shipbuilders Josiah Fox and James Hackett also were consulted.Fowler (1984), p. 21.
The final design plans submitted to President Washington for approval called for building new frigates rather than purchasing merchant ships and converting them into warships, an option under the Naval Act.Fowler (1984), p. 20. The designers realized that the fledgling United States could not match the European states in the number of ships afloat. Nevertheless, this gave the Americans the distinct advantage in that their ship design was not constrained by access to timber nor limited crew. This allowed the designers to plan for enormous ships given their role. They had the ability to overpower other frigates, but were capable of a speed to escape from a ship of the line.Toll (2006), pp. 49–53.Beach (1986), pp. 29–30, 33.Allen (1909), pp. 42–45. The design was unusual for the time, being deep, long on keel and narrow of beam (width); mounting very heavy guns; incorporating a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme aimed at limiting hogging; while giving the ships extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than the hulls of other navies' frigates. Knox advised President Washington that the cost of new construction would likely exceed the appropriations of the Naval Act. Despite this, Washington accepted and approved the plans the same day they were submitted, April 15, 1794.Smelser (1959), pp. 72–73.
Joshua Humphreys was appointed Master Constructor of the ships. An experienced draftsman, Josiah Fox, was hired into the War Department to put plans to paper. However, Fox disagreed with the large dimensions of the design and, according to Humphreys, attempted to downsize the measurements while producing his drafts. This incensed Humphreys enough that Fox was soon assigned to the mold loft with William Doughty.Humphreys (1916), p. 401.
After or simultaneously with the creation of the drawings, a builder's half model was assembled from which measurements were taken to create molds of the timbers. In a process known as "molding", the dimensions of the framing pieces were chalked onto the floor of a mold loft where a template was formed using strips of light wood.Wood (1981), pp. 88–90. Once the molds were transported to the timber crews, the templates were used to select the part of a tree that closely matched the template. From there the timber was felled and roughed out close to the required dimensions, then numbered for identification and loaded onto a ship for transport. An additional set of more detailed molds was required for each frigate for the construction crews to follow.
Construction Secretary Knox suggested to President Washington that six different construction sites be used, one for each ship, rather than building at one particular shipyard. Separate locations enabled the allotted funds to stimulate each local economy, and Washington approved the sites on April 15, 1794. At each site, a civilian naval constructor was hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as superintendents, one for each of the six frigates as follows:Fowler (1984), p. 24.
ShipSiteGunsNaval constructorSuperintendentReferenceGosport, Virginia38Josiah FoxRichard DaleBoston, Massachusetts44George ClaghornSamuel NicholsonNew York, New York44Christian BerghSilas TalbotCanney, Donald (2001), Sailing Warships of the US Navy, p. 38.Philadelphia, Pennsylvania44Joshua HumphreysJohn BarryKittery, Maine38James HackettJames SeverBaltimore, Maryland38David StodderThomas Truxtun
Humphreys wished to use the most durable materials available for construction, primarily white pine, longleaf pine, white oak, and, most importantly, southern live oak.Hollis (1900), p. 48. Live oak was used for framing as it was a strong, dense, and long-lasting wood weighing up to 75 lb per cubic foot (1,200 kg/m3) when freshly cut.Wood (1981), p. 4. The live oak tree grows primarily in coastal areas of the United States from Virginia to Texas, with the most suitable timber found in the coastal areas of Georgia near St. Simons.Wood (1981), p. 3. This desire for live oak was the primary cause of delays in the frigates' construction. Appropriated funds from the Naval Act were not available until June 1794.Smelser (1959), p. 74. Shipbuilder John T. Morgan was hired by the War Department to procure the live oak and supervise the cutting and crews. Morgan wrote to Humphreys in August reporting that it had hardly ceased raining since his arrival and "the whole country is almost under water". Captain John Barry was sent to check up on progress in early October; he found Morgan and several persons sick with malaria. Timber cutting finally began when the crews arrived on the 22nd.Wood (1981), pp. 25–28. The earliest delivery of timber occurred in Philadelphia on December 18, but another load of live oak destined for New York was lost when its cargo ship sank. Delays continued to plague the timber cutting and delivery operations throughout 1795. By December of that year all six keels had been laid down, though the frigates were still unframed and far from finished.Wood (1981), pp. 29–31.Smelser (1959), pp. 76–77.
Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the Treaty of Tripoli, which was witnessed by Algiers. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the frigates was to be discontinued. However, President Washington instead requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a final decision was reached allowing Washington to complete two of the 44-gun and one of the 36-gun frigates.Smelser (1959), pp. 77–78. The three frigates nearest to completion, United States, Constellation and Constitution, were chosen.Daughan (2008), p. 294. Construction of Chesapeake, Congress, and President was halted, and some of their construction materials were sold or placed in storage.Smelser (1959), p. 77.