Hanfu (, lit. "Han clothing"), also known as Hanzhuang (, "Han attire") or traditional Chinese clothing, are historical Chinese clothings worn by the majority Han Chinese people from at least the 2nd millennium BC to the mid-17th century AD — encompassing nearly all of the recorded history of China up to the end of the Ming dynasty — until violent conquest and forced assimilation by the Qing dynasty led to their replacement by the Manchu qizhuang and magua in a historical event known as Tifayifu. Due to the rise of China since the start of the 21st century, there is currently a growing cultural movement among the younger generations in Mainland China and the Chinese diaspora to revive and reinstate hanfu as the genuine, orthodox representative of Chinese culture and aesthetics, as opposed to the Manchu-inspired qipao and tangzhuang and the Japanese school uniform (gakuran)-inspired Mao suit.
There are several representative styles of hanfu, such as the (a long skirt worn high over the upper garment), (an upper garment with a long underskirt), (a loose-fitting, open-front coat) and (one-piece robe), and the (an upper-body garment with trousers). Historically, the most common formal style of hanfu consists of a broad-sleeved robe named paofu for men, or the pairing of an upper garment named ru (jacket) with a lower garment named qun (skirt) for women. In almost all these styles, at least one of the upper garments (either the overgarment or the undergarment), will have crossing collars (known as jiaoling) with the left front panel overlapping the right panel and fastened at the right waist (known as youren), typically by a knotted ribbon. In addition to clothing, hanfu also includes several forms of headwear, footwear and accessories, such as belts and buckles, hand fans, jewellery, jade belt pendants (), bracelets, and sachets.
As with many traditional Chinese things, hanfu derives its name from the Han dynasty, the first golden age of China with international sphere of influence. The centuries-long prosperity and stability of the Han dynasty allowed hanfu to develop into a variety of styles due to a number of technological advancements in textile production and dyeing, particularly with rapid advancements in sericulture. Due to the historical dominance of China in the Far East, hanfu has also influenced the traditional fashions of many neighbouring countries within the Chinese cultural sphere, including the Korean hanbok, the Japanese kimono, the Ryukyuan ryusou and the Vietnamese áo giao lĩnh. Elements of hanfu design have also influenced Western fashion, especially through Chinoiserie fashion, due to the popularity of Chinoiserie in Europe and North America since the 17th century.
History
Hanfu generally comprises all historical clothing classifications of the Han Chinese with a recorded history of more than three millennia. Each succeeding dynasty produced their own distinctive dress codes, reflecting the socio-cultural environment of the times. Clothing made of silk was initially used for decorative and ceremonial purposes. The cultivation of silk, however, ushered the development of weaving, and by the time of the Han dynasty, brocade, damask, satin, and gauze had been developed.
From the beginning of its history, hanfu (especially in elite circles) was inseparable from silk and the art of sericulture, supposedly discovered by the Yellow Emperor's consort Leizu, who was also revered as the Goddess of sericulture. There is even a saying in the Book of Change, which says that:
Hanfu had changed and evolved with the fashion of the days since its commonly assumed beginnings in the Shang dynasty. Many of the earlier designs are more gender-neutral and simpler in cut than later examples. Later garments incorporate multiple pieces with men commonly wearing pants and women commonly wearing skirts. Clothing for women usually accentuates the body's natural curves through wrapping of upper garment lapels or binding with sashes at the waist.
From ancient times, the ru upper garments of hanfu were typically worn wrapped over the front, in a style known as ; the left side covering the right side and extend to the wearer's right waist. Initially, the style was used because of the habit of the right-handed wearer to wrap the right side first. Later, the people of the Central Chinese Plain discouraged left-handedness, considering it unnatural, barbarian, uncivilized, and unfortunate. The collar follows the yin and yang theory, wherein the left lapel represents the yang (which symbolizes life) suppresses the yin (which symbolizes death); therefore, is the clothing of the living while if it is worn in the opposite way in a style called , the clothing then becomes burial clothing and is therefore considered a taboo. is also used by some minority ethnic groups in China.
Many factors have contributed to the fashion of ancient China: beliefs, religions, wars, and the emperor's personal liking. Following the Qin dynasty, colours used in the sumptuary laws of the Han Chinese held symbolic meaning, based on the Taoist Five Elements Theory and the yin and yang theory; each dynasty favoured certain colours. Some elements of Hanfu have also been influenced by neighbouring cultural clothing, especially by the nomadic peoples to the north, and Central Asian cultures to the west by way of the Silk Road.
Shang dynasty, 2nd millennium BCE In China, a systemic structure of clothing was first developed during the Shang dynasty, where colours, designs, and rules governing use was implemented across the social strata. Only primary colours (i.e. red, blue, and yellow) and green were used due to the degree of technology at the time.
The rudiments of hanfu was developed in this period; the combination of upper and lower garments, called , was usually worn with a . The a style of upper garment, started to be worn during this period. Alt URL In winter, padded jackets were worn. The or , which were knee-high trousers tied onto the calves but left the thighs exposed, were worn under the . During this period, this clothing style was unisex. Only rich people wore silk; poor people continued to wear loose shirts and made of hemp or ramie. An example of a Shang dynasty attire can be seen on an anthropomorphic jade figurine excavated from the Tomb of Fu Hao in Anyang, which shows a person wearing a long narrow-sleeved with a wide band covering around waist, and a skirt underneath. This attire appears to have been designed for the aristocratic class.
Zhou dynasty, 1046–256 BCE
Following the Shang dynasty, the Western Zhou dynasty established new system of etiquette and rites on clothing, placing new ceremonial, political and cultural significance on clothing. This tied fashion to the rites and culture of its people, which became the basis for the Li (禮) orthodoxy of Confucianism that dominated East Asian culture for 2000 years. In reference to this, Ruist writings such as Kong Yingda's "True Meaning of Chunqiu- Zuo zhuan" suggest that the term huaxia () referred to both the ceremonial etiquettes of the central states and the clothing that those states' denizens wore.Zuozhuan, "Duke Ding – 10th year – zhuan"Chunqiu Zuozhuan Zhengyi, "vol. 56" quote: "夏，大也。中國有禮儀之大，故稱夏；有服章之美，謂之華。華、夏一也。" p. 70 of 118
Principle of this practice was the standardization of a garment style called (, "upper top, and lower garnment", meaning separating the upper and lower garments into two items).("") Liji Zhengyi () vol. 65, of (). Though the fashion gradually evolved and was replaced by styles such as shenyi, the still maintained as the basis for formal and ceremonial wear such as the mianfu and chaofu.故宮博物院《紫禁城》（1992年第05期），紫禁城雜誌編輯部，第28–32頁 This created a strict hierarchical society that used clothing as a status meridian, and inevitably, the height of one's rank influenced the ornateness of a costume. Costumes would also be distinguished by their ceremonial usage. This became the antecedent for the complex system of clothing for all succeeding eras and dynasties. Importance were hence placed on items such as the and , as recorded in Rites of Zhou and Book of Rites.Book of Rites vol. 43, 冠義 quote: "凡人之所以為人者，禮義也。禮義之始，在於正容體、齊顏色、順辭令。容體正，顏色齊，辭令順，而後禮義備。以正君臣、親父子、和長幼。君臣正，父子親，長幼和，而後禮義立。故冠而後服備，服備而後容體正、顏色齊、辭令順。故曰：冠者，禮之始也。是故古者聖王重冠。" 1 of 4 The was used to distinguish social ranks; the use of was one of the distinctive features of the Hanfu system, and men could only wear it after the Adulthood ceremony known as . Other markers of status included the fabric materials, the shape, size, colour of the clothing, the decorative pattern, the length of a skirt, the wideness of a sleeve, and the degree of ornamentation. There were strict regulations on the clothing of the emperor, feudal dukes, senior officials, soldiers, ancestor worshippers, brides, and mourners.
The was the most distinguished type of formal dress, worn for worshipping and memorial ceremonies; it had a complex structure and there were various decorations which bore symbolic meaning; there were six ranked types of which were worn by emperors, princes and officials according to their titles. The emperors also wore (only second to ) when meeting with officials or if they had to work on official business. When the emperor were not at court, they wore the . could also worn by princes during sacrificial occasions and by scholars who would go pay respect to their parents in the morning. The , , and all consisted of four separate parts: a skirt underneath, a robe in the middle, a on top, and a long cloth belt (). Similarly to the Western Zhou dynasty, the dress code of the early Eastern Zhou dynasty was governed by strict rules which was used maintain social order and to distinguish social class.
In addition to these class-oriented developments, the daily hanfu in this period became slightly looser while maintaining the basic form the Shang dynasty in the wearing of . Broad and narrow sleeves both co-existed. The was closed with a sash which was tied around the waist; jade decorations were sometimes hung from the sash. The length of the skirts and could vary from knee-length to ground-length. Common people in the Zhou dynasty, including the minority groups in Southwest China, wore hemp-based clothing.
The Zhou dynasty also formalized women's wearing of with a coming-of-age ceremony called , which was performed after a girl was engaged and the wearing of showed a girl was already promised to a marriage. Men could also wear alone, however more commonly men wore with the to fix the headwear.
This ritual marked a significant transition from childhood to adulthood, symbolizing a woman's readiness for marriage and her new responsibilities within society. The evolution of these hairpins, from simple Ji to more elaborate Zan, often reflected changes in dynastic styles and the increasing artistry of Chinese jewelry. Materials such as jade, sandalwood, and precious metals were chosen not only for their aesthetic appeal but also for their cultural and symbolic significance, representing virtues, connection to nature, or status.
Spring and Autumn period, Warring States period