The grammar of the Klingon language was created by Marc Okrand for the Star Trek franchise. He first described it in his book The Klingon Dictionary. It is a nominative–accusative, primarily suffixing agglutinative language, and has an object–verb–subject word order. The Klingon language has a number of unusual grammatical features, as it was designed to sound and seem alien, but it has an extremely regular morphology.
Word order Klingon follows an object–verb–subject word order.Okrand 1992, p.59 Adverbs usually go at the beginning of the sentenceOkrand 1992, p.56. Note exception neH only, merely from p.56 and jayʼ (swear word) from p.177. and prepositional phrases go before the object.Okrand 1992, p.180
Sentences can be treated as objects, and the word ʼeʼ is placed after the sentence. ʼeʼ is treated as the object of the next sentence.Okrand 1992, p.66. Note exception neH want The adverbs, indirect objects and locatives of the latter sentence go after the subject, but before the ʼeʼOkrand 2011
Nouns Klingon has three noun classes. The first one is living beings with an innate capacity to use language. The second one is body parts (not the body itself) and the third is all other nouns.Okrand 1992, p.22 Klingon has no articles, so the word raS table can mean a table or the table. The difference between the two is inferred from context. Suffixes There are five types of noun suffixes. A word cannot have two suffixes of the same type.Okrand 1992, p.21 The suffixes are ordered based on type number; a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix.Okrand 1992, p.29 In the following example, all five suffix types are used in the correct order.
Type 1 (size, affection) This type has three suffixes:
The augmentative suffix-ʼaʼ,
The diminutive suffix -Hom,
and the endearment suffix -oy.
If the noun to which the endearment suffix is added ends with a vowel, a glottal stop is inserted between them:Okrand 1992, p.174
Type 2 (plurals) This type of suffix forms plurals. There are three suffixes, one for each noun class.
The suffix -puʼ is for beings capable of using language.
The suffix -Duʼ is for body parts,
The suffix -mey is used for all other nouns.
When -mey is used for nouns that would normally take -puʼ or -Duʼ, it carries the connotation of being all over the place.
A noun does not require a plural suffix if a pronoun, pronominal prefix, or context serves to indicate that it is plural,Okrand 1992, p.23 or if it is being used in conjunction with a number.Okrand 1992, p.55
Duypuʼ chaH or Duy chaH They are emissaries. raSmey DIghor or raS DIghor We broke the tables.
Type 3 (accuracy) This type of suffix indicates the speaker's opinion of the applicability of the noun. There are three suffixes:
The suffix -qoq indicates that the speaker thinks what they are referencing is not actually represented by the noun.
The dubitative suffix -Hey indicates the speaker is not entirely sure if the object they are referencing is represented by the noun.Okrand 1992, p.24
The suffix -naʼ indicates that the speaker is entirely sure that the object is represented accurately by the noun.Okrand 1992, p.25
Type 4 (possession, determiners) This type of suffix indicates possession or specifies which object is referred to. It contains twelve suffixes.
There are ten possession suffixes, indicating who is the possessor of the object, which may be a person. For first- and second-person possessors, there are different forms depending on whether the "object" is a being capable of using language. Possessives 1st-person singular 2nd-personsingular 3rd-personsingular 1st-personplural 2nd-personplural 3rd-personplural Not capable of using language -wIj -lIj -Daj -maj -raj -chaj Capable of using language -wIʼ -lIʼ -maʼ -raʼ
There are also two determiner suffixes:Okrand 1992, p.26 -vam this indicates an object that is nearby or that is being discussed -vetlh that indicates an object that is not nearby or that had previously been discussed
Examples: Non-language-user possessives:
Language-user possessives:
Determiners:
Type 5 (syntactic role) This type of suffix serves a syntactic role in the sentence. It contains five suffixes.
The locative suffix -Daq indicates the action of the sentence is taking place in, at or on the noun.Okrand 1992, p.27 With certain verbs, it indicates motion towards the noun.
The ablative suffix -voʼ indicates that the action is taking place away from the noun. Again, with certain verbs, it indicates motion away from the noun.
The causal suffix -moʼ indicates that the action is occurring because of the noun.
The dative/benefactive suffix -vaD indicates the indirect object, and/or the noun for which the action has been done.
The topicalizing suffix -ʼeʼ indicates the topic of the sentence or emphasises the noun in the phrase, and also marks the head noun of a relative clause.Okrand 1992, p.28
Verbs Klingon verbs mark for aspect but not for tense, which is indicated where necessary by context and by time adverbs. Prefixes mark subject and object. There are ten types of suffix, and as with nouns, a verb can have no more than one suffix of any type. (The tenth type, called rovers, are an exception.) Again as with nouns, the types of suffix must appear in a strict order, indicated by their type number: a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. A rover suffix can go between any of them.Okrand 1992, p.44
Unlike English, there is no infinitive.Okrand 1992, p.33 The presentation of the verb stem as an infinitive in this article's example sentences is just to show the individual morphemes.
Prefixes Klingon verb prefixes mark both the subject and the object. + Verb prefixes Object No object 1st personsingular 2nd personsingular 3rd personsingular 1st personplural 2nd personplural 3rd personplural Subject 1st person singular jI- qa- vI- Sa- vI- 2nd person singular bI- cho- Da- ju- Da- 3rd person singular Ø- mu- Du- Ø- nu- lI- Ø- 1st person plural ma- pI- wI- re- DI- 2nd person plural Su- tu- bo- che- bo- 3rd person plural Ø- mu- nI- lu- nu- lI- Ø- unspecified* Ø- vI- Da- Ø- wI- bo- lu- * Expressed with the type-5 verb suffix -luʼ
Legend Meaning Not represented Ø- Null prefix
+ Imperative-mood prefixes Object No object 1st personsingular 3rd personsingular 1st personplural 3rd personplural Subject 2nd person singular yI- HI- yI- gho- tI- 2nd person plural pe-
Prefixes must be present even if the nouns or pronouns they reference are declared explicitly.Okrand 1992, p.52 In certain cases with a third person object, a first or second person indirect object can be omitted by using the first and second person object prefixes instead. This is known as the prefix trick.
Examples: No object:
Subject and object:
Imperative:
Suffixes
Type 1 (reflexive/reciprocal) This type of suffix forms reflexive verbs. There are two suffixes.
The reflexive suffix -ʼegh indicates that the individual subject(s) does/do the action to her/him/itself/themselves.Okrand 1992, p.35
The reciprocal suffix -chuq indicates that the individual subjects do the action to each other.Okrand 1992, p.36 Intransitive verbs cannot take this suffix.
Type 2 (volition/necessity) This type of suffix deals with the subject's volition. There are five suffixes.
The suffix -nIS indicates that the subject is required to or has the necessity to complete the action.
The suffix -qang indicates that the subject is willing to perform the action.
The suffix -rup indicates the subject is prepared to complete the action.
The suffix -beH indicates that the subject has been set up to complete the action. -beH is used with devices, whereas -rup is used with beings.
The suffix -vIp indicates that the subject is afraid to do the action.Okrand 1992, p.37
Type 3 (inceptive/inchoative) This type of suffix describes the action of the verb. There are two suffixes.
The suffix -choH indicates a change of state to that indicated by the verb:
The suffix -qaʼ indicates the action had been stopped, but is now resuming, or that the action is being performed again.
Type 4 (causative) There is only one suffix in this category, the causative suffix -moH. This suffix indicates that the subject is causing something to happen. If the verb to which it is added is transitive, the object becomes the indirect object. Many Klingon words are derived this way. For example, the verb clean (SayʼmoH) is derived from the verb be clean (Sayʼ).Okrand 1992, p.38
Intransitive verb:
Causative form:
Transitive verb:
Causative form:
Type 5 (undefined subject; capability) There are two unrelated suffixes in this group. The suffix -luʼ indicates an undefined subject. The verb prefixes that are normally used for first or second person subject with third person singular object are used to indicate first or second person object. The suffix indicates that the subject is capable of performing the action of the verb.
Examples: -luʼ without prefix:
much bej He/she watches the presentation
-luʼ with prefix:
vItlhaʼ I chase it
-laH:
Type 6 (perfection; uncertainty) This type indicates the speaker's opinion of the action of the verb. There are four suffixes.
The suffix -chuʼ indicates that the speaker considers the action is done in the best possible manner.
The suffix -bej indicates that the speaker is completely sure the action is occurring.
The dubitative suffix -lawʼ indicates that the speaker thinks the action is occurring, but is not sure.Okrand 1992, p.40
The suffix -baʼ indicates that the speaker thinks that it is obvious that the action is occurring.Okrand 1992, p.175
Type 7 (aspect) This type indicates the verb's aspect. There are four Type 7 suffixes.
Note that aspect is different from tense and independent of it. A "completed" event (perfective aspect, -puʼ or -taʼ) can just as easily be set before, during, or after the time of description (past, present, or future tense), or unspecified for tense. For simplicity, this section says "is completed", not "was, is, or will be completed." (Do not confuse perfective aspect with "perfectly done".)
The perfective suffix -puʼ indicates that, in the time context of the sentence, the action is completed.
The suffix -taʼ also indicates that the action is completed, and further specifies that it was done on purpose.Okrand 1992, p.41
The suffix -taH indicates that the verb is occurring continuously.
The suffix -lIʼ indicates that the verb is occurring continuously, but that it has a definite ending point.Okrand 1992, p.42
The perfective aspect can also be indicated by the use of the verb form rIntaH after the main verb. This carries the connotation of irreversibility. ghorluʼ rIntaH It has been broken (and it cannot be mended)
Type 8 (honorific) There is only one suffix in this group, the honorific suffix -neS. It is used when addressing any type of superior, be it social, political, or military, and only when being very polite or having high regard for that person. It is never required.Okrand 1992, p.43 -neS:
Type 9 (syntactic) Eleven suffixes specify syntactic roles in the sentence.
Nominalizers Two suffixes form specific types of noun from a verb.
The suffix -wIʼ is used to form words for persons and things that do something, much as English nouns of the form X-er can mean either "person who does X" (listener, baker) or "thing that does X" (screwdriver, sprinkler).
The suffix -ghach is used as a nominalizer for verbs ending in suffixes, which otherwise are unable to be nominalized. This suffix is usually used with other suffixes and is rarely found alone with the verb stem.Okrand 1992, p.176
Modals These two suffixes inflect the verb in specific grammatical moods. The interrogative suffix -ʼaʼ is used to form yes–no questions.
The optative suffix -jaj is used to indicate a wish or desire of the speaker.
Subordinators