Congolese people in France include immigrants from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo, as well as their descendants. They form one of the largest French-speaking African diasporas in the country and have grown steadily since the 1960s through labor migration, family reunification, higher education, political exile, and asylum. Congolese people predominantly live in the Paris metropolitan area.
Migration from the Republic of the Congo increased after the country became independent in 1960 and was supported by the country's close political, educational, and linguistic ties with France. Migration from the Democratic Republic of the Congo grew during the economic crisis of the 1980s and increased further because of political unrest, armed conflict, and humanitarian emergencies. According to the French National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques; INSEE), there were 132,100 descendants of immigrants from both Congos living in France in 2018, including 68,600 descendants of immigrants from the Republic of the Congo and 63,500 descendants of immigrants from the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
History
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Background of migration Before gaining independence on 30 June 1960, the Democratic Republic of the Congo passed through four main historical periods. The first lasted from "time immemorial to 1885". In that year, the Congo Free State was established as the private personal property of King Leopold II of Belgium. This relatively brief period lasted until 1908, when Belgium took control of the territory and turned it into a colony. The Belgian colonial period continued until 1960, when the country became independent. After independence, the country has been characterized by political unrest and violence. Civil wars have been a common part of its history. During the First Republic (1960–1965), the country faced major instability. Katanga and South Kasai declared secession, while several rebel groups fought across the country, including a rival "popular government" that controlled the Orientale province. These conflicts forced many people to flee their homes and created the country's first large waves of internally displaced people and refugees in the post-colonial period.
In 1965, the First Republic came to an end after a military coup brought a new regime to power. Political conditions became more stable, although unrest continued in the eastern part of the country. Mercenaries attempted to invade the city of Bukavu, but a military operation conducted by Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC – the Congolese National Army) halted the advance of the rebellion. Meanwhile, large numbers of people fled their villages, moving either to other parts of the country or to neighboring states such as Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania, and Zambia. When relative calm was eventually restored across the country, additional population movements took place in the form of rural-to-urban migration and urban-to-rural migration. However, rural exodus remained far more significant than urban-to-rural migration because, during the Second Republic (1965–1997), the exploitation of the country's abundant natural resources was reserved exclusively for the state. The liberalization of the natural resource sector was not authorized until 1983. Although the government remained firmly in power, resting on an "obscure despotism", it gradually encountered growing difficulties arising from widespread dissatisfaction with its poor economic performance. By the 1980s, Zaire was forced to accept strict economic reforms required by international financial institutions.
These institutions implemented structural adjustment programs in the country. As part of these reforms, civil servants' salaries were reduced, even though the public sector employed only about 4.1% of the country's economically active population. Student scholarships were abolished, and public hospitals lost government subsidies. Political propaganda even adopted a refrain that was repeatedly broadcast on Office Zaïrois de Radio Télévision (OZRT) proclaiming "the death of the welfare state", which reflected the growing withdrawal of government support for basic public services. While the political elite continued to benefit from the country's resources, the rest of the population faced worsening living conditions. The country's economic problems became permanent, and most economic indicators continued to fall. During the 1990s, the government's handling of calls for political reform only made the crisis worse. Since then, economic progress has remained limited, with little reason for optimism.
Meanwhile, migration from rural areas to cities continued to increase. Kinshasa attracted more migrants than any other city in the country. According to sociologist and historian, Léon de Saint Moulin, the capital received the largest number of people moving from other parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo every year. However, cities did not have enough housing, roads, schools, or public services to support the growing population. As a result, many cities effectively became sprawling shantytowns. During this period, more Congolese also moved to neighboring African countries, Western Europe, and the United States. International migration became an important goal for many families, who developed different ways to make it possible. As migration became more common, many people in cities and rural areas began to see it as a way to build a better future. In a country where the state could no longer provide enough security or support, migration became an important strategy for improving economic stability. When the war that ended the rule of Mobutu Sese Seko began in 1996, it struck a country that was already in poor condition. Much of the infrastructure had fallen into disrepair, and the government had done little to improve the lives of the population. Moreover, neo-patrimonial political practices in the exercise of power have not been entirely eradicated from the management of public affairs even today. Martin Ekwa bis Isal argues that the country's long political transition did not completely remove the habits inherited from colonial rule and the Second Republic. He also suggests that it created new problems, stating that the "hypertrophy of the political class and the excessive number of candidates for elective office indicate that politics is still perceived and understood as a means of gaining prestige and rapid wealth without effort". The Netherlands Institute for Southern Africa (NiZA) described the Congolese government in a report titled l'Etat contre le peuple ("The State Against the People"). The report argued that much of the failure of the country's political transition was caused by poor governance and widespread corruption. It explained that the Democratic Republic of the Congo was still affected by a system of government in which public office was mainly used for personal gain rather than public service. According to the report, this was one of the biggest barriers to rebuilding the country and dealing with its humanitarian crisis.
In 1997, the Second Republic ended when Laurent-Désiré Kabila overthrew Mobutu. After taking power, Kabila restored the country's official name to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, abandoning the name Zaire, which had become associated with Mobutu's rule. However, only a year later, his government came under attack, leading to a war that involved Congolese groups and several foreign countries. Some states supported the government in Kinshasa, while others backed rebel movements in an effort to weaken it. Because so many African countries became involved, the conflict became known as "Africa's World War". The war lasted five years and was followed by many diplomatic meetings involving the Congolese government, political groups, and other African countries. These negotiations led to the 1999 Lusaka Agreement, which called for a new political system. A power-sharing government was later formed under the "1+4" formula, with one president and four vice presidents, before national elections were held in 2006. The war caused large-scale population displacement across the country. Millions of people fled their homes and moved to safer areas within the Democratic Republic of the Congo, while many others sought refuge in neighboring countries. These movements had a major impact on the country's stability and its humanitarian situation. Armed conflict was not the only reason people were forced to leave their homes. Eastern Congo is also affected by volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. During the 1997 eruption of Mount Nyiragongo near Goma, many residents fled to Rwanda and other parts of the country. Most of these people later returned to Goma, and only a small number remained outside the country.
Informal economic activities The migration of Congolese people from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to France increased as Zaire's economy declined during the mid-1970s. Falling prices for export products, the failure of the Zairianization policy, rising public debt, widespread corruption, and weaker state institutions severely weakened the country's economy. By the early 1990s, high inflation, shortages of basic goods, failing public services, and political instability had become common. The collapse of democratic reforms after the democratization in 1990 made the situation even worse. With fewer job opportunities and little government support, many people chose to leave the country in search of better opportunities. France, together with Belgium, became one of the main destinations because existing Zairian migrant communities and trade networks made it easier for newcomers to settle.
Research shows that many Congolese who moved to Paris during the 1980s turned to trade and small business after facing limited opportunities at home. Some had struggled in school because of stricter education policies introduced under structural adjustment programs, while others found that university degrees no longer guaranteed jobs in the civil service. High unemployment and low-paying government jobs also pushed many to leave. Most migrants came from the urban centers of Kinshasa, but others arrived from different regions of the country. The migration process was primarily supported by informal networks of family members, friends, and earlier migrants, who shared information about travel, housing, jobs, and business opportunities. Some people also traveled with forged documents or received help from intermediaries who arranged their trips. Many youths from Ndjili were especially familiar with administrative procedures and informal ways of organizing migration, which made the commune an important center for migration networks.