Military career of Muhammad

The military career of Muhammad ( – 8 June 632), the Islamic prophet, encompasses several expeditions and battles throughout the Hejaz region in the western Arabian Peninsula which took place in the final ten years of his life, from 622 to 632. His primary campaign was against his own tribe in Mecca, the Quraysh. Muhammad proclaimed prophethood around 610 and later migrated to Medina after being persecuted by the Quraysh in 622. After several battles against the Quraysh, Muhammad conquered Mecca in 629, ending his campaign against the tribe.

Alongside his campaign against the Quraysh, Muhammad led campaigns against several other tribes of Arabia, most notably the three Arabian Jewish tribes of Medina and the Jewish fortress at Khaybar. He expelled the Banu Qaynuqa tribe for violating the Constitution of Medina in 624, followed by the Banu Nadir who were expelled in May 625 after being accused of plotting to assassinate him. Finally, in 628, he besieged and invaded the Jewish fortress of Khaybar, which hosted more than 10,000 Jews, which Muslim sources say was retaliation for planning to ally themselves with the local Arab pagan tribes.During the final years of his life, Muhammad sent several armies against the Byzantine Empire and the Ghassanids in northern Arabia and the Levant, before conquering Mecca in 630 and leading a campaign against some Arab pagan tribes close to Mecca, most notably in Ta'if. The last army led by Muhammad before his death was in the Battle of Tabuk in October 630. By the time he died in 632, Muhammad had managed to unite most of the Arabian Peninsula, laying the foundation for the subsequent Islamic expansion under the caliphates and defining Islamic military jurisprudence.

Background Muhammad's role in The Islamic Ghazwat

In his prophetic biography () titled The Sealed Nectar (), Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri cites Ibn Hisham in saying that Muhammad took part in the Ghazwat Wars, which took place between an alliance of the Quraysh and the Kinanah and the Qais 'Ailan, when he was 15, saying that "his efforts were confined to picking up the arrows of the enemy as they fell, and handing them over to his uncles."

Expeditions The following tables list all military expeditions of Muhammad, divided between ghazawāt (; expeditions Muhammad led personally) and sarāyā (; expeditions dispatched under another commander). The ghazawāt list follows al-Waqidi's count of 27.

Ghazawāt (led by Muhammad) +Ghazawāt — expeditions led by Muhammad personally#NameDate (CE)AH yearOpponentLocationOutcomeNotes1Waddan (Abwāʾ)Jan–Feb 6231 AHQuraysh / Banu DamraAl-AbwaNo engagement; treaty with Banu DamraFirst ghazwa; no fighting2BuwatMar 6231 AHQuraysh (Umayyad caravan)BuwatNo engagementCaravan escaped3Safwan (Badr I)Mar–Apr 6231 AHKurz ibn Jabir al-FihriNear BadrNo engagementPursuit of raider4UshayraMay–Jun 6232 AHQuraysh caravanUshayraNo engagement; treaty with Banu Mudlij5Badr13 Mar 6242 AHQurayshBadrMuslim victoryFirst major battle; 70 Quraysh killed, 70 captured6Banu Sulaym (Kudr)Apr 6242 AHBanu SulaymAl-KudrNo engagement7Al-SawiqMay 6242 AHAbu Sufyan (Quraysh reprisal)Near MedinaNo engagementQuraysh retreated8Dhi AmrJan 6253 AHBanu Ghatafan / Banu MuharribNajdNo engagement9BahranFeb–Mar 6253 AHBanu SulaymBahranNo engagementLargest force assembled to that point10Uhud23 Mar 6253 AHQurayshMount UhudMuslim tactical defeatMuhammad wounded; Hamza killed; 70 Muslims killed11Hamra al-Asad24 Mar 6253 AHQurayshHamra al-AsadStrategic Muslim recoveryPursuit the day after Uhud; Abu Sufyan withdrew12Banu NadirAug 6254 AHBanu NadirMedina (siege)Expulsion of Banu NadirTribe expelled northward to Khaybar13Dhat al-RiqaOct 6254 AHBanu Ghatafan / Banu MuharribNajdNo engagementFear prayer () reportedly instituted here14Badr II (Badr al-Mawʿid)Apr 6264 AHAbu Sufyan (Quraysh)BadrInconclusive; Quraysh withdrewNo fighting; Quraysh retreated after three days15Dumat al-JandalAug 6265 AHBanu KalbDumat al-JandalNo engagement; tribe dispersedNorthernmost expedition to that point16Khandaq (Trench)Jan–Feb 6275 AHQuraysh confederacy; Banu GhatafanMedinaMuslim defensive victoryCoalition of ~10,000 repelled; trench strategy devised by Salman al-Farsi17Banu QurayzaFeb–Mar 6275 AHBanu QurayzaMedina (siege)Muslim victoryMen executed per arbitration of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh; women and children enslaved18Banu LihyanJun 6276 AHBanu LihyanHejazNo engagement; tribe fledReprisal for Bi'r Ma'una massacre19Dhi Qarad (al-Ghabah)Jun 6276 AHUyayna ibn Hisn (Ghatafan)Near MedinaPartial recovery of camelsRaid reprisal20Banu Mustaliq (Muraysiʿ)Jan 6286 AHBanu MustaliqAl-MuraysiʿMuslim victoryAffair of the Necklace connected to this expedition21HudaybiyyahMar 6286 AHQurayshAl-HudaybiyyahTreaty signedQuran describes as "manifest victory" (48:1); pilgrimage deferred one year22KhaybarMay–Jun 6287 AHJews of Khaybar; Banu NadirKhaybarMuslim victoryLast major Jewish stronghold; kharaj tribute precedent established23Fulfilled Umrah (ʿUmrat al-Qaḍāʾ)Mar 6297 AH—MeccaPeaceful entryPilgrimage completed per Hudaybiyyah terms; Meccans vacated city for three days24Conquest of MeccaJan 6308 AHQurayshMeccaMuslim victory; largely bloodlessAbu Sufyan converts; general amnesty declared25HunaynFeb 6308 AHHawazin; ThaqifHunayn valleyMuslim victoryInitial Muslim rout reversed; largest force assembled (12,000)26TaʾifFeb–Mar 6308 AHThaqifTaʾifInconclusive siege; withdrawalThaqif converted voluntarily in 63127TabukOct–Nov 6309 AHByzantine–Ghassanid frontierTabukNo engagement; treaties with border tribesLast ghazwa; army of ~30,000; northern limit of Muhammad's campaigns

Sarāyā (selected dispatched expeditions) +Sarāyā — selected expeditions dispatched under other commandersCommanderDate (CE)AH yearOpponentLocationOutcomeNotesHamza ibn Abd al-MuttalibJul 6231 AHQuraysh caravan (Abu Jahl)Coast near al-IsNo engagementFirst sariyya on recordUbaydah ibn al-HarithAug 6231 AHQuraysh caravanThaniyyat al-MurraNo engagementSa'd ibn Abi WaqqasSep 6231 AHQuraysh caravanKharrarNo engagementAbdullah ibn JahshJan 6242 AHQurayshNakhlaFirst Muslim blood shedAmr ibn al-Hadrami killed; controversy over fighting in sacred monthBi'r Ma'unaAug 6254 AHBanu Amir / Sulaym (treachery)Bi'r Ma'unaAmbush; Muslim massacre70 Muslim reciters (qurra) killed; precipitated Banu Lihyan reprisalAl-RajiSep 6254 AHBanu Lihyan (treachery)Al-RajiAmbush; 10 Muslims killedGuides betrayed the party to Banu LihyanMuʾtahSep 6298 AHByzantine–Ghassanid armyMuʾtah (modern Jordan)Muslim defeatZayd ibn Haritha, Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib, Abdullah ibn Rawaha killed; Khalid ibn al-Walid assumes command and withdrawsUsama ibn ZaydJun 63211 AHByzantine frontierSyria directionCompleted under Abu BakrDispatched at Muhammad's death; first expedition of the Rashidun Caliphate

Notes on enumeration The total count of ghazawāt varies by source: Ibn Ishaq counts 19, Ibn Sa'd and al-Waqidi both count 27, though with some differences in which expeditions are included. The sarāyā numbered between 35 and 48 depending on the source. Only sarāyā of significant historical consequence are listed above; for a complete list see List of expeditions of Muhammad.

Situation in Medina Medina was divided into five tribes: two of them the Khazraj and Aws, while the Jews were represented by, from smallest to largest, the Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir and Banu Quraizah. Upon his arrival in Medina, Muhammad set about the establishment of a pact known as the Constitution of Medina, to regulate the matters of governance of the city, as well as the extent and nature of inter-community relations, and signatories to it included the Muhajirun, the Ansar and the Jewish tribes of Medina.Ibn Hisham, as-Seerat an-Nabawiyyah, Vol. I p. 501. Significant clauses of the constitution included the mutual assistance of each other if one signatory were to be attacked by a third party, the resolution that the Muslims would profess their religion and the Jews theirs, as well as the appointment of Muhammad as the leader of the state.

And the threat to the life of both the Ansar and the Muhajireen was such that they were reported as having to sleep by their weapons all night."When the Holy Prophet and his Companions came to Madina, and the helpers gave them shelter, all the Arabs combined to fight them. The Companions had to sleep by their weapons, till the morning" (Hakim and Darimi, quoted in Shibli's Sirat an-Nabi, p. 308). As tensions escalated the Muslims began to take defensive measures such as stationing guards around Muhammad and sending out reconnaissance patrols.

After initially refusing to accede to requests by his followers to fight the Meccans for continued persecution and provocation, he eventually proclaimed the revelations of the Quran: "Permission to fight is given to those who are fought against because they have been wronged -truly Allah has the power to come to their support- those who were expelled from their homes without any right, merely for saying, 'Our Lord is Allah'...""-Surah 22:39–40

History Campaign against the Jews of Medina Expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa'

In April 624, after the Battle of Badr, the Banu Qaynuqa violated the Constitution of Medina by shaming a Muslim woman by pinning and tearing her clothes. A Muslim man who witnessed this, killed the Jewish man responsible for it in retaliation. The Jews came in group against the Muslim and killed him. After a successive chain of similar revenge killings, enmity grew between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa', which led Muhammad to lay siege to their fortress. The Qaynuqa' had a strength of around 700. After being besieged for 14–15 days, the tribe eventually surrendered to Muhammad, who initially wanted to capture the men of Banu Qaynuqa', but ultimately yielded to Abdullah ibn 'Ubayy and agreed to expel the Qaynuqa'. The tribe eventually went northward toward Der'aa in modern-day Syria and assimilated themselves into the local Jewish population.

Expulsion of the Banu Nadir

In May 625, Muhammad laid siege to the Banu Nadir, after he came to know that they were plotting to assassinate him. The siege is said to have lasted anywhere between six and fifteen days. Enjoying their strategic advantage due to the thick foliage of palm trees surrounding their castles, the Banu Nadir pelted the Muslims with stones and showered arrows upon them from their castles. In response, Muhammad is said to have commanded the burning of the palm trees. The tribe eventually surrendered and was expelled, moving northward toward Khaybar, another Jewish fort city around 150 km (95 mi) north of Medina and was captured again during the Battle of Khaybar. They were allowed to live around Khaybar until the Rashidun caliph, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, expelled them for a second time.

Invasion of the Banu Qurayza

During the Battle of the Trench in December 626 and January 627, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, whose forts were located in southern Medina, were caught conspiring to ally themselves with the confederates and were charged with treachery. After the retreat of the coalition, Muslims besieged their forts, and they were the last of the Jewish tribes of Medina. The Banu Qurayza surrendered and all the men and one woman were beheaded, apart from a few who converted to Islam, while all the other women and children were enslaved.Peterson, Muhammad: the prophet of God, p. 126Tariq Ramadan, In the Footsteps of the Prophet, Oxford University Press, p. 141