The Confucian court examination system in Vietnam (, ; chữ Hán: 科舉越南) was a civil service examination system for selecting civil officials. Established in 1075 under the Lý dynasty and lasting until 1919 under the Nguyễn dynasty, this system was heavily influenced by the Chinese imperial examination model. The examinations evaluated candidates' understanding of ethical and political principles in the Confucian classics. Candidates were required to demonstrate literary competence through established classical forms, including kinh nghĩa (經義; exegesis of the classics), thơ - phú (詩-賦; regulated verse and rhapsodic prose), chế - chiếu - biểu (制-詔-表; edicts and memorials) and văn sách (文策; policy essays and discourses).
History
The civil service examination system was introduced to Vietnam during the extended period of Chinese domination. Local individuals from the Annam, such as Jiang Gongfu (姜公輔; Khương Công Phụ), successfully passed the imperial examinations. Jiang Gongfu subsequently served as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Dezong of the Tang dynasty.
Lý dynasty The civil service examinations were first instituted at court level by Emperor Lý Nhân Tông in 1075. The civil examination had three-rounds (tam trường; 三場). These rounds tested knowledge of the Confucian classics, poetry, and the ability to compose official documents and essays. There were no set intervals for civil examinations. In total, there were seven examinations during the Lý dynasty:
1075 (乙卯; Ất Mão), the top candidate was Lê Văn Thịnh (黎文盛), a native of Đông Cứu, Gia Định prefecture. 1086 (丙寅; Bính Dần), the top candidate was Mạc Hiển Tích (莫顯績), a native of Lũng Động, Chí Linh district. 1152 (壬申; Nhâm Thân), the examination was held in the court. 1165 (乙酉; Ất Dậu), candidates were tested for the rank of Thái học sinh (太學生) 1185 (乙巳; Ất Tị), the three top candidates were Bùi Quốc Khái (裴國愾), Đỗ Thế Diên (杜世延), and Đặng Nghiêm (鄧嚴). Candidates ages 15 and older were allowed to participate. 1193 (癸丑; Quý Sửu) 1195 (乙卯; Ất Mão), candidates were tested on the three teachings (三教; tam giáo). The historian Ngô Sĩ Liên (吳士連) criticised the exam where he stated that Confucians of the past studied the Hundred Schools of Thought extensively and also studied Taoism and Buddhism. However, later realised that Taoism and Buddhism were vague and elusive, lacking any firm grasp. Thus, they returned to studying the Six Classics. Anyone who studied Confucianism and then also studied Taoism and Buddhism would find Taoist texts saying things like: "Heaven transforms in myriad ways; whether there is virtue or not depends on the circumstances; responses arise accordingly; the traces are never constant." Buddhist texts say: "No birth, no death, no coming, no going, no strength, no form." All of this is disordered... and would still be of no benefit.
In the first volume of the book, Đỉnh khiết Đại Việt lịch triều đăng khoa lục (鼎鍥大越歷朝登科錄). There is a passage in the appendix that states:
The exact date of this examination is uncertain because (1) the era name during the reign of Lý Huệ Tông was Kiến Gia (建嘉), not Trinh Khánh (貞慶) and (2) the year Mậu Thìn (戊辰) does not correspond to any year within his reign.
Trần dynasty In 1227, the civil service examinations were re-instituted where candidates were tested on the three teachings (三教; tam giáo).
In 1232, during the reign of Trần Thái Tông, the civil service examinations were expanded upon, initially the court instituted the Thái học sinh examination. The examinations were to be held every seven years. Later, the 1247 examination introduced the rankings of tam giáp (三甲), dividing candidates into three tiers for the court examination.
+DynastyNhất giápNhị giápTam giápTrần dynastyTam khôi (三魁)
Trạng nguyên (狀元) Bảng nhãn (榜眼) Thám hoa (探花)Hoàng giáp (黄甲)Thái học sinh (太學生)Lê dynastyTam khôi (三魁)/Tiến sĩ cập đệ (進士及第)
Trạng nguyên (狀元) Bảng nhãn (榜眼) Thám hoa (探花)Hoàng giáp (黄甲) Tiến sĩ xuất thân (進士出身)Đồng tiến sĩ xuất thân (同進士出身)Nguyễn dynastyTam khôi (三魁)/Tiến sĩ cập đệ (進士及第)
Trạng nguyên (狀元) Bảng nhãn (榜眼) Thám hoa (探花)Hoàng giáp (黄甲) Tiến sĩ xuất thân (進士出身)Đồng tiến sĩ xuất thân (同進士出身)
Beginning in 1256, the rank of trạng nguyên (狀元) was split into Kinh trạng nguyên (京狀元; metropolitan zhuangyuan) and Trại trạng nguyên (寨狀元; rural zhuangyuan) as the provinces from that year, Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An were designated as rural territories (trại). This distinction continued until 1275.
In 1305, during the reign of Emperor Trần Anh Tông, the structure of the examinations was changed from three-rounds (tam trường; 三場) to four-rounds (tứ trường; 四場) which consisted of:
Kinh nghĩa (經義; exegesis of the classics) Thơ - phú (詩-賦; regulated verse and rhapsodic prose) Chế - chiếu - biểu (制-詔-表; edicts and memorials) Đối sách (對策; policy response essays and discourses) Prior to the examination, there was an entrance exam to eliminate unqualified candidates. It consisted of candidates copying from memory (ám tả; 暗寫) excerpts of two books, Y quốc thiên (醫國篇) and Mục thiên tử truyện (穆天子傳). The first round of the exam required candidates to analyze Confucian classics and explain them. The second round required candidates to write a poem in long-form five-character poems (ngũ ngôn trường thiên; 五言長篇). The round also required candidates to write a phú (賦) in eight-rhyme verse using these four characters (tài 才, nan 難, xạ 射, and trĩ 雉) to rhyme. The third round tested candidates on writing edicts, decrees, and memorials. The final round focused on the policy response essay (đối sách; 對策), where candidates addressed hypothetical or real policy issues asked by the emperor, writing proposals for governance.
In 1345, examinations were held for students of imperial academy, the book Đại Việt sử ký tiệp lục tổng tự (大越史記捷錄總序) records:
It was not until the 1374 examination that changed rank of Thái học sinh (太學生) into tiến sĩ (進士).
In 1396, emperor Trần Thuận Tông issued an edict establishing the format for the provincial examination and the metropolitan examination, both to be conducted in four stages of classical-style composition. It also abolished the ám tả (暗寫) part of the examination.
One essay on exegesis of the classics, including sections such as breaking the topic (phá đề), transitional phrases (tiếp ngữ), minor discussion (tiểu giảng), original theme (nguyên đề), major discussion (đại giảng), and conclusion (kết luận), with a minimum of 500 characters. One regulated poem in Tang style (Đường luật; 唐律), and one phú in either the ancient style (cổ thể; 古體), the Li Sao style (ly tao; 離騷), or the Wenxuan style (văn tuyển; 文選), each also requiring at least 500 characters. One imperial edict (chiếu; 詔), one imperial decree (chế; 制), and one memorial (biểu; 表) written in Tang-style four-six prose (tứ lục; 唐體四六). One policy essay (văn sách; 文策), with topics drawn from the Confucian Classics, history, or current affairs, each essay required to be at least 1,000 characters.
The provincial examination is held one year, with the metropolitan examination following in the subsequent year.
Hồ dynasty Shortly after Hồ Quý Ly usurped the Trần throne in 1400, in the eighth month of that year, an examination was held to test candidates for the rank of Thái học sinh (太學生) where thirty people passed the examination. The top candidate of the examination was Lưu Thúc Kiệm (劉叔儉), native of Trạm Lộ, Gia Bình district. Candidates in the Nhị giáp (二甲) tier included Nguyễn Trãi (阮廌), Lý Tử Tấn (李子晋), Vũ Mộng Nguyên (武夣原), Hoàng Hiến (黄憲), and Nguyễn Thành (阮誠).
A provincial examination was held in eighth month of 1405 at the Ministry of Rites where 170 candidates passed. Anyone who passed would be exempt from corvée labor. In the eighth month of the following year, the Ministry of Rites (Lễ bộ) would hold an examination, and those who passed would be exempt from official appointment. In the eighth month of the year after that, the metropolitan examination would be held, and those who passed would be appointed as Thái học sinh. In the subsequent year, the provincial examination would be held again, repeating the cycle.
The examination method followed the Yuan dynasty system, consisting of three main rounds. The writing component was divided into four rounds, with an additional round for writing and calculation, making five rounds in total.
Fourth Era of Northern Domination A section in the book, Lịch triều hiến chương loại chí (歷朝憲章類誌), states:
During this period, Neo-Confucianism (理學; lý học) gained more influence in Vietnam which influenced later examinations.
Lê dynasty
Nguyễn lords
Mạc dynasty
Tây Sơn dynasty In 1789, Sùng Chính viện (崇正院) was established and Nguyễn Thiếp (阮浹; 1723–1804) was appointed as head of the academy. Nguyễn Thiếp was tasked with reforming the civil service examinations and translating Chinese classics such as Four Books and Five Classics into vernacular Vietnamese (Nôm) for wider dissemination. These translations were done in giải âm (解音). Unlike previous dynasties with the exception of the Hồ dynasty, vernacular Vietnamese (Nôm) was included in the examinations. This was done by having the examination questions be written in Vietnamese and in the third round of the examinations, candidates had to compose poems and prose in Nôm.
The first and only Nôm provincial examination was held in eighth month of 1789 (己酉; Kỷ Dậu) in the Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An region during emperor Quang Trung's reign. The top graduate was Phan Đăng Đệ (潘登第), a man from Trà Lũ village, Giao Thủy district, Xuân Trường prefecture, Nam Định province. After the emperor’s death, Emperor Cảnh Thịnh sought to continue his father’s policies; however, the examination system during his reign was disrupted by war. Since regular examinations could not be held, regulations for khảo khóa (考課) were established.
In the second month, candidates entered the first round, tested on five topics of kinh nghĩa (經義; classical exegesis) and one topic of truyện nghĩa (傳義; commentary exegesis). In the fifth month, they entered the second round, tested on one composition each in parallel writing (四六文), chiếu (詔), chế (制), and biểu (表). In the eighth month, they entered the third round, tested on one regulated Tang-style poem in seven-character lines (七言唐律) and one phú (賦) in the eight-rhyme style. In the eleventh month, they entered the fourth round, tested on five or six passages of sách vấn (策問). Finally, in the twelfth month, a re-examination (phúc hạch; 覆核) was conducted, and the results were officially posted.
Although these examinations were referred to as khảo khóa, they were practically a provincial examination. There were two examinations in total, one in 1800 and the other in 1801. These examinations did not use chữ Nôm.
Nguyễn dynasty It wasn't until 1807 during Gia Long's reign that civil service examinations were re-instituted due to the instability of the state. Initially, only the thi Hương (試鄉; provincial examination) were held every six years. It was then in 1822, that thi Hội (試會; metropolitan examination), and thi Đình (試廷; court examination) were held again. In 1825, it was changed so that examinations were to be held every three years rather than six. It was standardised to be that the provincial examination would be held every Rat (子; Tí), Horse (午; Ngọ), Cat (卯; Mão), and Rooster (酉; Dậu) year. The exams in Thừa Thiên, Gia Định, and Nghệ An were held in seventh lunar month, while those in Thanh Hóa, Nam Định, and Bắc Thành (Hà Nội) were held in ninth lunar month. While the metropolitan examination would be held every Dragon (辰; Thìn), Dog (戌; Tuất), Buffalo (丑; Sửu), and Goat (未; Mùi) year, in third lunar month.
An excerpt from the book, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (欽定大南會典事例), stated: