José María Linares Lizarazu (10 July 1808 – 23 October 1861) was a Bolivian lawyer and politician who served as the 13th president of Bolivia from 1857 to 1861. Commencing his political career at a young age, he emerged as a fervent advocate of free trade, liberalism, the exploitation of silver mines, and the establishment of a monopoly on mercury to facilitate the latter objective.
Linares served as Minister of the Interior and Foreign Relations in the third cabinet of José Miguel de Velasco, but due to differences with the "Restoration" movement, he had to go into exile in Spain. In 1848, he returned to his country and became the President of the Congress. He defended President Velasco against Manuel Isidoro Belzu, and after Velasco's fall, he fled to Argentina and inspired various conspiracies against Belzu.
In 1857, he overthrew President Jorge Córdova, Belzu's son-in-law, and assumed the presidency. Linares, Bolivia's first civilian president, declared himself dictator in 1858 and confronted the power of the clergy and the military through a reform program. He repressed several uprising attempts, and in 1861, he was deposed by his own supporters and replaced by a triumvirate that sentenced him to exile. The former president fled to Chile, where he died shortly after his exile.
Early life
Family and education José María Linares was born in , Potosí Department, in his family's hacienda. Belonging to the noble and wealthy family of the Counts of Casa Real and Lords of Rodrigo in Navarre, Linares was related to the Spanish nobility. He was educated at the Royal and Pontifical University of San Francisco Xavier, in the city of Sucre.
Political baptism Linares was seventeen years old when, on the night of 13 July 1825, a revolutionary movement erupted in the city of Potosí in support of Antonio José de Sucre and Francisco O'Connor, who were approaching the city as part of the Upper Peruvian campaign of the Bolivian War of Independence. Leaving his home, Linares joined the Patriot cause, which eventually succeeded in overthrowing the Spanish Royalists in Upper Peru. This moment served as Linares' first political involvement; after the revolution, he continued to support liberal movements, governments, and ideologies.
Political career
In the final years of General Andrés de Santa Cruz's administration, a powerful party emerged in Bolivia, the National Party, which did not support the Peru–Bolivian Confederation and openly conspired against its Protector. The revolution against him finally erupted at an inconvenient moment for Santa Cruz, leading to the loss of his control in Bolivia. Simultaneously, in Peru, the Chileans, under the command of General Manuel Bulnes, expelled Santa Cruz. The pronunciamientos of José Miguel de Velasco and José Ballivián took place on 9 February and 15 February respectively, and the Battle of Yungay on 20 January 1839. With Santa Cruz and his Confederation fallen, General Velasco rose to power. Around him, the most notable figures in the country gathered, including Linares. With them, an independent congress was established, contrasting sharply with previous assemblies.
This assembly, in stark contrast to Santa Cruz's policies, completely reformulated the country's governmental structure. Linares and his involvement in contributing to this constitution were applauded. His popularity increased significantly as a result, and after a short stint as Prefect of the Department of Potosí, he was called to assume the position of Minister of the Interior and Foreign Relations: "In taking this measure," stated Velasco in a communication dated 16 November 1839, "announcing to you your appointment, I have considered not only the notorious capacity and deep patriotism that you embody but also the outstanding and relevant services you have rendered to the cause of Bolivia's restoration".
Minister of the Interior and Foreign Relations
Finding the country in a state of chaos, Linares had to contain the revolutionary attempts of General Ballivián and the former allies of the fallen Protector, who seized every opportunity to sway public opinion in their favor. Another crisis unfolded with Peru, where President Agustín Gamarra had plans to conquer Bolivia. Linares, in his function as Minister of the Interior and Foreign Relations, refused to ratify the humiliating treaties imposed by Peru, signed in 1829, and prepared for war. Gamarra responded by crossing the Desaguadero with a sizable army, militarily occupying the departments of La Paz and Oruro. Velasco and Linares did everything possible, with the support of the congress, to organize a resistance against the invading army. However, a revolutionary movement erupted in the south led by General Sebastián Ágreda, a supporter of Santa Cruz. Ballivián, in hiding but not defeated, raised arms in the same invaded departments; civil discord spread rapidly, and internal conspiracies hindered responses to external attacks. Velasco and his government, thus, collapsed, and on 10 June 1841, Linares was forced to resign. Public opinion, however, raised Linares' name amid the turmoil with honorable applause. Velasco was on the Argentine border with a respectable force he had managed to gather around him, preparing to meet Ballivián, who had already been proclaimed president by the revolutionaries. At that moment, Velasco received news that the common enemy, General Gamarra, was facing the Bolivian Army on the eve of a decisive battle. Velasco, with Linares' support, spontaneously decided to hand over his entire army to Ballivián, an act that proved decisive and culminated in the Bolivian victory on the fields of Ingavi on 18 November 1841.
Exile in Europe Meanwhile, Linares embarked on a journey to Europe. There, he divided his time in exile between serious studies, to which he devoted himself, and family matters that required resolution before the courts of Navarre. The ancestral wealth of his affluent grandparents was at risk of falling into the hands of the local government. Lengthy legal disputes had unfolded in previous years, and now was the opportunity to bring them to a close. He obtained the reparations sought and regained possession of his property. The letters he wrote to his friends in America reveal the kind of studies that particularly occupied his time. Social science was the focus of his vigilance. Linares believed that he foresaw the coming revolution and studied it, using a "sure scalpel to expose the deep wounds of European society". Subsequent events confirmed his assertions when the Revolutions of 1848 erupted.
Spain recognizes Bolivian independence In 1847, while still in Europe, Linares received the appointment of plenipotentiary minister of Bolivia to Spain. Invested with this position, he negotiated a treaty of peace and friendship with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Spanish court, Don Joaquín Francisco Pacheco, in which the independence of Bolivia was recognized. However, this pact was not ratified by the Bolivian government because Manuel Isidoro Belzu refused to do so, considering it tainted since it had been negotiated by General Ballivián, who was now out of favor. During Linares' absence, Bolivia had undergone drastic changes with violent reactions and acclaim for tireless caudillos. Having lost his popularity, Ballivián and his successor, Eusebio Guilarte, were overthrown by Velasco and Belzu. Once again acclaimed in the southern departments as the constitutional president, Velasco assumed the presidency while Belzu was appointed Minister of War. Linares returned to Bolivia after Ballivián's fall and was elected President of the Bolivian Congress. According to the provisions of the 1839 Constitution, now in force, Linares was, de facto, the Vice President of Bolivia.
Relentless plotter However, just a few months later, Belzu, who had contributed more than anyone to overthrow Ballivián and had initially supported Velasco's proclamation, led a revolution in Oruro and proclaimed himself President of Bolivia. In the Battle of Yamparáez on 6 December 1848, Belzu defeated the government forces personally commanded by General Velasco, after a three-month campaign. Velasco, defeated, handed over the leadership of the constitutionalist cause to Linares. Soon thereafter, he became leader of the so-called Partido Generador (Generator Party), which advocated democracy, civilian control of politics, and a return of the Bolivian military to its barracks. This earned Linares the mistrust of most governments of the time (which were de facto), and a few stints in exile. Nevertheless, he became the country's most important civilian and constitutionalist leader, with a growing following. Exiled from Bolivia, Linares spent almost a decade conspiring against the government of Belzu. His tireless conspiracies are described by Walker Martinez in the following words:One could see him in Salta gathering around him some outcasts and invading the borders of Bolivia, crossing rough roads, ravines, and deep rivers, vast deserts, and facing all kinds of dangers. Then, when Belzu's forces shattered his weak and naturally ill-prepared armies in those improvised campaigns, and the triumphant leader believed his enemy was reduced to impotence and completely annihilated, he could be found on the shores of Chile, or on the coasts of Peru, weaving the threads of another revolution, gathering the broken and scattered fragments of Bolivia's old parties, and arming his followers to attempt a coup. When his calculations failed again and when no hope seemed to remain amid the wreckage of his plans, his health, and his fortune, he would be found again in astonishment in Salta, in Tucumán, in Buenos Aires, in Copiapó, in Santiago, and in Tacna, always waging relentless war against his enemy, relentlessly pursuing the same object without deviating an inch from his goal.Juan Manuel de Rosas, at Belzu's request, became involved in the matter. Linares was forced to reside in Buenos Aires and was subjected there for a year under the strictest surveillance. The Battle of Caseros on 3 February 1852, and the fall of Rosas freed Linares from his captors in Buenos Aires. Once free, he continued his relentless plots. In 1853, when he traveled from Salta to Valparaíso during the winter, a friend described the following: "He had lost his beard and eyebrows in the ice of the mountains; his skin was so tanned that he seemed completely black, his lips torn apart, his nature, in short, shattered but not defeated". In his later years, the effects of these harsh and long journeys throughout South America manifested as severely compromised health.
Battle of Tupiza Amidst the many small skirmishes and countless minor battles of that prolonged conflict, Linares arrived in the province of Chichas and reached Tupiza when least expected. He arrived in the evening and, without dismounting from his horse, spoke words that motivated his soldiers. The next morning, he prepared for battle because General Jorge Córdova was rapidly advancing against the revolution and was at the gates of the town. Three days later, the forces of both sides met on the fields of Mojo on 8 July 1853. Linares' forces could not defeat the seasoned Córdova, who triumphed against the rebels in twenty minutes. During the battle, the cavalry, which comprised the majority of the revolutionary forces, rode on horses not yet entirely tamed, leading to great disorder at the first cannon shots. The efforts of the leaders to restore the line and take timely action were in vain. Colonel Tejerina, the commander of those troops, in his despair, charged with only thirty men against Córdova's unit and met his end amidst enemy bayonets. General Manuel Carrasco, upon witnessing the defeat, charged the enemy ranks, came within a few steps, fired his pistols, and fled. Among the other revolutionary leaders were the former president Velasco and Casimiro Olañeta.