In clinical psychology and well-being, mindfulness is the cognitive skill of, or state reached by intentionally maintaining moment-by-moment awareness of bodily sensations, feelings, thoughts, and immediate surroundings with a non-judgmental or equanimous attitude, counteracting [the mind's] automatic rumination and cognitive elaborations on one's experiences. The term mindfulness derives from the Pali word , a significant element of Buddhist traditions, and it incorporates elements from Theravada, Chan, and Tibetan Buddhist meditation techniques.
Mindfulness is a secularized form of meditation, the product of a mutual syncretism between eastern spiritual traditions influenced by western esotericism and religion, and western traditions and psychology influenced by these syncretized eastern traditions. In 1975 it was introduced in western medicine by Herbert Benson, and integrated in the 1970s and 1980s into health-programs and psychotherapy by Jon Kabat-Zinn, Zindel Segal, and Mark Williams. They and others in clinical psychology and psychiatry have developed a number of therapeutic applications based on mindfulness interventions for helping people experiencing a variety of psychological conditions. Since the 1990s, secular mindfulness meditation has gained a broad popular acceptance in the West.
Clinical studies have documented mental health benefits of mindfulness as well as physical health benefits in different patient categories and in healthy adults and children. Mindfulness research has also long attracted criticism, particularly in its early decades, due to concerns about limited methodological rigor. More recent research, however, has become substantially more rigorous, employing randomized controlled trials, active control groups, and stronger methodological standards.
Some critics have also argued that mindfulness is over-commercialized and over-marketed, and that "McMindfulness" strips it of its Buddhist ethical and wisdom roots in favor of a productivity-focused self-help product.
Etymology The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term and in its Sanskrit counterpart . It is often translated as "bare attention", but in the Buddhist tradition it has a broader meaning and application, and the meaning of these terms has become the topic of extensive debate and discussion.
The English term mindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translates French pensée), as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (c. 1200).Oxford English Dictionary, second ed., 2002 According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, mindfulness may also refer to "a state of being aware". Synonyms for this "state of being aware" are wakefulness, attention, alertness, prudence, conscientiousness, awareness, consciousness, and observation.
The Pali-language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922) first translated in 1881 as English mindfulness in "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind". Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "correct meditation", Davids writes:
According to Bryan Levman, "the word incorporates the meaning of 'memory' and 'remembrance' in much of its usage in both the and the [traditional Buddhist] commentary, and [...] without the memory component, the notion of mindfulness cannot be properly understood or applied, as mindfulness requires memory for its effectiveness".
According to Robert Sharf, originally meant 'to remember', 'to recollect', 'to bear in mind', as in the Vedic tradition of remembering the sacred texts. The term also means 'to remember'.
John D. Dunne says that the translation of and as 'mindfulness' is confusing. A number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish 'retention' as the preferred alternative. Bhikkhu Bodhi also describes the meaning of as 'memory'.
Meaning and definitions There is a multiplicity of definitions, which has limited the comparibility of research outcomes. Mindfulness can be defined as a practice (e.g. a set of skills and techniques), a mental state, or as a trait. While often defined as "present-centered awareness" or "bare attention", these qualifications have been questioned and criticized, as mindfulness in Buddhism also involves discernment and ethical judgment. To give an adequate introduction to these aspects, first the Buddhist background is treated, and then the psychological scientific approaches.
Buddhism
Secular mindfulness is derived from Buddhist meditation techniques; the word 'mindfulness' translates the terms and . These have multiple meanings, centering on memory and the remembrance of the dharma; present-centered awareness, and ethical correct behavior and self-restrainment.
Remembrance of the dharmas The Pali word , which is commonly translated as 'mindfulness', carries the connotation of memory. Early Buddhist texts describe the concept not only as awareness of sense perceptions but also as recollection of the Buddha's teachings and past events:
In the the term means to remember the dharmas, whereby the true nature of phenomena can be seen. Sharf refers to the , which said that the arising of calls to mind the wholesome dhammas such as the four foundations of mindfulness, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening-factors, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the attainment of insight. According to Rupert Gethin,
Bare attention and ethical correct behavior Sharf notes that the original meaning of sati has little to do with "bare attention", the popular contemporary interpretation of , "since it entails, among other things, the proper discrimination of the moral valence of phenomena as they arise."
Georges Dreyfus has also expressed unease with the description of mindfulness as "bare attention" or "nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness", stressing that mindfulness in a Buddhist context also means "remembering", which indicates that the function of mindfulness also includes the retention of information. Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention".
Jay L. Garfield, quoting Shantideva and other sources, stresses that mindfulness is constituted by the union of two functions, and vigilantly . He demonstrates that there is a direct connection between the practice of mindfulness and the cultivation of moralityat least in the context of Buddhism, from which modern interpretations of mindfulness are stemming."Mindfulness and Ethics: Attention, Virtue and Perfection" by Jay Garfield
Contemporary Buddhist definitions According to American Buddhist monk Ven Bhante Vimalaramsi's book A Guide to Tranquil Wisdom Insight Meditation, the term "mindfulness" is often interpreted differently than what was originally formulated by the Buddha. In the context of Buddhism, he offers the following definition:
In Thich Nhat Hanh's lineage, mindfulness is closely intertwined with the concept of interbeing, the notion that all things are interconnected. This school of thought emphasizes awareness of the present moment and ethical living, reflecting the interconnected nature of existence. Thích Nhất Hạnh defined mindfulness as "the energy that sheds light on all things and all activities, producing the power of concentration, bringing forth deep insight and awakening."
Shinzen Young says a person is mindful when they have mindful awareness, and defines that to be when "concentration power, sensory clarity, and equanimity [are] working together." John Yates (Culadasa) defines mindfulness to be "the optimal interaction between attention and peripheral awareness", where he distinguishes attention and peripheral awareness as two distinct modes in which one may be conscious of things.
Psychology
Methodological concerns Various scholars have criticized how mindfulness has been defined or represented in recent Western psychology publications. In psychology, mindfulness has a more limited meaning than in Buddhism. These modern understandings depart significantly from the accounts of mindfulness in early Buddhist texts and authoritative commentaries in the Theravada and Indian Mahayana traditions.
Purser & Milillo note that scholars and psychologists have tended to a narrow interpretation of mindfulness, restricted to "the cognitive capacities of attention and awareness", selectively focusing on "the role of attention as the key component of mindfulness". Adam Valerio has argued that conflict between academic disciplines over how mindfulness is defined, understood, and popularly presented may be indicative of a personal, institutional, or paradigmatic battle for ownership over mindfulness, one where academics, researchers, and other writers are invested as individuals in much the same way as religious communities.
Skill (practice), state, trait Mindfulness is a multivalent term, as it can be defined as a trait, a mental state, and as a practice or skill: A trait, a dispositional characteristic (a relatively long-lasting trait), a person's tendency to more frequently enter into and more easily abide in mindful states; A state, an outcome (a state of awareness resulting from mindfulness training), being in a state of present-moment awareness; A skill or practice (mindfulness meditation practice itself), to reach a mindful state.
Several questionnaires approach mindfulness as a state, while other mindfulness measures have been developed which are based on self-reporting of trait-like constructs.
Definitions
Jon Kabat-Zinn, the pioneering figure in the introduction of mindfulness-based approaches into healthcare and psychological science, described mindfulness as "the awareness that emerges through paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment."
Yet, Kabat-Zinn has also stated that the word was meant to cover both the intentional application of awareness and "as an umbrella term that subsumes all of the other elements of the Eightfold Noble Path, and indeed, of the dharma itself, at least in implicit form".
Williams et al. (2007) define mindfulness as " the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to things as they are".
Bishop et al. (2004), based upon a consensus among clinical psychologists, propose a two-component model of mindfulness, consisting of self-regulated attention, and a particular orientation toward one's experiences characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance.
According to Chems-Maarif et al. (2025), psychological definitions "emphasize (a) present-centered awareness and bare attention, and (b) attitudes of acceptance and non-judgment."
The Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeley describes mindfulness as "maintaining a moment-by-moment awareness of our thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding environment, through a gentle, nurturing lens. [It] involves acceptance, meaning that we pay attention to our thoughts and feelings without judging them [...] our thoughts tune into what we're sensing in the present moment rather than rehashing the past or imagining the future.."
Alvear et al. (2022) investigated lay (non-academic) theories of mindfulness,identifying seven themes, namely attention/awareness, a non-evaluative attitude, a strategy, a state, personal development, theoretical analyses, and "a lack of understanding of mindfulness".
Present-moment awareness and bare attention