The early Pagan Kingdom (), also known by its classical name Tampa dīpa (တမ္ပဒီပ, lit. "Bronze Country"), was a city-state that existed in the first millennium CE before the emergence of the Pagan Empire in the mid 11th century. The Burmese chronicles state that the "kingdom" was founded in the second century CE. The seat of power of the small kingdom was first located at Arimaddana, Thiri Pyissaya, and Tampawaddy until 849 CE when it was moved to Pagan (Bagan).
Radiocarbon dating shows the earliest human settlement in the Pagan region dates only from the mid-7th century CE. It existed alongside Pyu city-states that dominated Upper Burma. The city-state of Pagan, according to mainstream scholarship, was founded in the mid 9th century by the Mranma of Nanzhao kingdom. Burmans at Pagan expanded irrigation-based cultivation while borrowing extensively from the Pyus' predominantly Buddhist culture. It was one of many competing city-states in the Pyu realm until the late 10th century when the principality began absorbing its surrounding states. The expansion accelerated in the 1050s and 1060s when King Anawrahta founded the Pagan Empire, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery.
Chronicle tradition
Formation Various Burmese chronicles do not agree on the date of foundation of Pagan. One of the earliest chronicles, Yazawin Kyaw compiled in 1520, states that the kingdom of Pagan was founded in 156 CE by King Pyusawhti.(Yazawin Kyaw 2010: 139–140): Pagan was founded 700 years after the death of the Buddha. The 18th century chronicle Maha Yazawin links the Pagan monarchs to the Sri Ksetra kingdom, stating that Pagan was founded in 107 CE by King Thamoddarit, a scion of Sri Ksetra kingdom. The Buddha visited the future site of Pagan during his lifetime and predicted that a great city would arise at the very site 651 years after his death (107 CE).Maha Yazawin 2006: 132–133 The 19th century chronicle Hmannan Yazawin went further, asserting that the founders of the Pagan dynasty ultimate trace their origins back to the clan of the Buddha.Than Tun 1964: ix–x
Still according to the standard chronicles, Thamoddarit fixed the capital at Arimaddana-pura (), ("the City that Tramples on Enemies"), near present-day Nyaung U, and named his kingdom Pugarama. His "kingdom" included 19 villages in the region. The 19 villages were: (1) Nyaung U, (2) Naga Soe, (3) Naga Kyit, (4) Magyi Kyi, (5) Htude, (6) Kyauk Zaga, (7) Ohte Thein, (8) Nyaungwun, (9) Anuradha, (10) Dazaungkun, (11) Ywa Mohn, (12) Kyinlo, (13) Kokko, (14) Taungpa, (15) Myegedwin, (16) Thayet Ya, (17) Singu, (18) Yonlut, and (19) Ywa Zaik.Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 133–134
According to Burmese Buddhist tradition, Pagan was known by different classical names even in the ages of previous Buddhas (i.e. before the present era of Gautama Buddha).Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 136 The names below are Burmese versions of Pali names.
Era Name Meaning Era of Kakusandha Buddha Pandupalāsh(पाण्डुपलाश)The withered foliage Era of Koṇāgamana Buddha Dharmakuṭī( धर्मकुटी )House of Righteousness Era of Kassapa Buddha Tambadvipa( तांबाद्वीप ) land of the Bronze Era of Gautama Buddha Arimardan( अरिमर्दन ) Foe-crusher
Thamoddarit then appointed Pyusawhti, the founder of Pagan according to Yazawin Kyaw, as heir apparent for the commoner's bravery in defeating enemies of the state. Pyusawhti came to power in 167 CE. He ruled for 45 years, implementing foundation institutions of the state, including its first law treatise (dhammathat).Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 135–138
The chronicles continue that King Thili Kyaung I (r. 344–387) moved the palace to Thiri Pyissaya, not far from the Pugama site. In 439, King Thihtan died without leaving an heir, and the throne was contested among three senior ministers at the court. The victor of the power struggle, the minister Thuye ruled until his death in 494. The Pyusawhti line was restored when King Tharamon Phya, a grandson of Thihtan, was put in power by the court. Tharamon Phya's successor Thaik Taing (r. 516–523) moved the palace to Tampawaddy, near Thiri Pyissaya.Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 139–141
The following is the list of Pagan kings as given in the main chronicles.Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 343–347
Name Reign per Zatadawbon Yazawin Reign per Maha Yazawin, Yazawin Thit, and Hmannan Yazawin Relationship with the predecessor Thamoddarit 80–125 107–152 Nephew of Thupyinnya of Sri Ksetra Yathekyaung 125–140 152–167 Caretaker Pyusawhti 140–222 167–242 Son-in-law of Thamoddarit Hti Min Yin 222–249 242–299 Son Yin Min Paik 249–334 299–324 Son Paik Thinli 334–371 324–344 Son Thili Kyaung I 371–415 344–387 Son Kyaung Tu Yit 415–440 387–412 Son Thihtan 440–477 412–439 Son Thuye 477–492 439–494 Usurper Tharamon Phya 492–514 494–516 Grandson of Thihtan Thaik Taing 514–521 516–523 Son Thinli Kyaung II 521–530 523–532 Son Thinli Paik 530–535 532–547 Brother Khan Laung 535–545 547–557 Brother Khan Lat 545–557 557–569 Brother Htun Taik 557–570 569–582 Son Htun Pyit 570–586 582–598 Son Htun Chit 586–613 598–613 Son
Middle Early Pagan The next important king was Popa Sawrahan (r. 613–640). The former monk seized the throne after King Htun Chit died in 613 CE. He launched the Burmese calendar on 21 March 640 CE, with the starting date of 22 March 638.(Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 143): The calendar was reset, leaving two years, in year 640 CE. The starting date of the Burmese calendar was 22 March 638; Year 2 of the Burmese calendar began on 21 March 640 per (Eade 1989: 39). (According to scholarship, the Burmese calendar was actually launched at Sri Ksetra (Pyay/Prome) by the Pyu.Hall 1960: 8–10) Popa Sawrahan made peace with the royal line by giving his daughter to Shwe Ohnthi, son of Htun Chit and rightful heir, and making his son-in-law the heir apparent. Popa Sawrahan died in 640 soon after his new calendar was launched, and Shwe Ohnthi succeeded, restoring the Pyusawhti line. Shwe Ohnthi was followed by another a dozen kings to year 846 CE.Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 143–146 In 846 CE, King Pyinbya (r. 846–886) came to power. Three years into his reign, on 23 December 849, he moved the capital to the present-day site of Pagan.
All four main chronicles are in agreement with the regnal dates in this period.
Name Reign per Zatadawbon Yazawin, Maha Yazawin, Yazawin Thit, and Hmannan Yazawin Relationship with the predecessor Popa Sawrahan 613–640 Usurper Shwe Ohnthi 640–652 Son-in-law Peit Thon 652–660 Brother Peit Taung 660–710 Son Min Khwe 710–716 Brother Myingyway 716–726 Usurper Theinga 726–734 Elected by court; of royal blood Thein Khun 734–744 Son Shwe Laung 744–753 Son Htun Htwin 753–762 Son Shwe Hmauk 762–785 Son Htun Lut 785–802 Brother Saw Khin Hnit 802–829 Son Khelu 829–846 Son
Late Early Pagan After Pyinbya's successor and son Tannet died in 904 CE, the throne passed on to a series of usurpers for nearly a century to 1001 CE.(Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 346–349): Dates per Zatadawbon Yazawin, the most accurate chronicle for early Pagan dates. Nyaung-u Sawrahan (r. 956–1001), the earliest inscriptionally verified king, ruled for 45 years. A descendant of Pyusawhti, Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu restored the old royal line in 1001 but 20 years later, he was pushed out by the sons of Nyaung-u Sawrahan. In 1044, Anawrahta, son of Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu, defeated Sokkate, son of Nyaung-u Sawrahan, in single combat and seized the throne.Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 147–154
The chronicles again do not agree with the dates for this period. The dates in later chronicles Yazawin Thit and Hmannan Yazawin now depart from Maha Yazawin dates from 846 CE forward.
Name Reign per Zatadawbon Yazawin Reign per Maha Yazawin Reign per Yazawin Thit and Hmannan Yazawin Relationship with predecessor(s) Pyinbya 846–886 846–858 846–878 Brother Tannet 886–904 858–876 878–906 Son Sale Ngahkwe 904–934 876–901 906–915 Usurper Theinhko 934–956 901–917 915–931 Son Nyaung-u Sawrahan 956–1001 917–950 931–964 Usurper Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu 1001–1021 950–971 964–986 Son of Tannet Kyiso 1021–1038 971–977 986–992 Son of Nyaung-u Sawrahan Sokkate 1038–1044 977–1002 992–1017 Brother
Scholarship
A settlement in the Pyu realm
Modern scholarship, however, holds that the Pagan dynasty was founded by the Mranma (Burmans) of the Nanzhao Kingdom in the mid-to-late 9th century CE; that the earlier parts of the chronicle are the histories and legends of the Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant; and that Pagan kings had incorporated the Pyu histories and legends as their own.Myint-U 2006: 44–45Hall 1960: 7
The earliest human settlement at Pagan is radiocarbon dated to c. 650 CE. But evidence is inconclusive to prove that it was specifically a Burman settlement, not just another Pyu settlement.Aung-Thwin 2005: 185 The 7th century settlement was part of the Pyu realm, which by then had been in existence in the Irrawaddy valley since the 2nd century BCE. (Archaeological evidence shows that as early as the 2nd century BCE, the Pyu had built water-management systems along secondary streams in central and northern parts of the Irrawaddy basin and had founded one of Southeast Asia's earliest urban centres. By the early centuries CE, several walled cities and towns had emerged. The architectural and artistic evidence indicates the Pyu realm's contact with Indian culture by the 4th century CE. The city-states boasted kings and palaces, moats and massive wooden gates, and always 12 gates for each of the signs of the zodiac, one of the many enduring patterns that would continue until the British occupation. Sri Ksetra emerged as the premier Pyu city-state in the 7th century CE. Although the size of the city-states and the scale of political organisation grew during the 7th to early 9th centuries, no sizeable kingdom had yet emerged by the 9th century.Lieberman 2003: 89)
Arrival of the Mranma According to G.H. Luce's reconstruction, the millennium-old Pyu realm came crashing down under repeated attacks by the Nanzhao Kingdom of Yunnan between the 750s and 830s CE. Like that of the Pyu, the original home of Burmans prior to Yunnan is believed to be present-day Qinghai and Gansu provinces.Moore 2007: 236Harvey 1925: 3Hall 1960: 11 After the Nanzhao attacks had greatly weakened the Pyu city-states, large numbers of Burman warriors and their families first entered the Pyu realm in the 830s and 840s and settled at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers, perhaps to help Nanzhao pacify the surrounding countryside.Lieberman 2003: 90 Indeed, the naming system of the early Pagan kings—Pyusawhti and his descendants for six generations—was identical to that of the Nanzhao kings where the last name of the father became the first name of the son.Myint-U 2006: 56–57Aung-Thwin 1985: 205
Despite the legendary nature of both pre-Buddhist and Hmannan's Buddhist-inspired stories, a historical Pyusawhti likely existed. Historians conjecture that the historical Pyusawhti was likely a minor chief of the Nanzhao Kingdom, who was in the vanguard of the Nanzhao invasions of the upper Irrawaddy valley that began in 754 (and lasted until the 830s). Pyusawhti's victory over the Chinese likely refers to the Nanzhao victory over the Chinese in the same era, in which Pyusawhti and his contingents may have participated.Harvey 1925: 308