Proto-Northwest Caucasian (sometimes abbreviated PNWC), also called Proto-West Caucasian (PWC) or Proto-Abkhaz-Adyghe, is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Northwest Caucasian languages.
Phonology
Vowels
Proto-Northwest Caucasian, just like its descendants, had a very small vowel inventory, most commonly reconstructed as consisting of 2 vowels: and . Some degree of allophony might have existed, especially near labialized and palatalized (or both) consonants.
Some scholars assume that the rich consonantal distinctions appeared from a formerly rich vowel inventory, so ** would result in *, ** in * (or possibly ), and so on. However, this view is doubted due to the tendency of vowel systems to get richer over time, and the opposite being much more rare.
Consonants
There was a primary four-way distinction of almost all obstruents in Proto-Northwest Caucasian. The following variations have been proposed:
Geminate /Cː/, plain /C/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/; Unaspirated /C˭/, aspirated /Cʰ/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/; Fortis /C͈/, lenis /C͉/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/. The only living descendants to have kept the 4-way distinction are the Shapsug and Bzhedug dialects. They both feature an unaspirated /C˭/, aspirated /Cʰ/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/ distinction, where all the remaining languages have merged them to plain /C/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/.
Additionally, there also were distinctions in labialization, palatalization and pharyngealization (and, depending on the analysis, aspiration), with combinations of those also possible, such as in case of .
Starostin & Nikolayev (1994)
The table of consonants below is adapted from , who developed a unique phonetic orthography for the Caucasian languages. The following differences compared to IPA notation for consonants can be observed: S&N(1994) IPA Fricatives ϑ, δ , š, ž , š́, ž́ , λ, L , Affricates c, ʒ , č, ǯ , č́, ǯ́ , ƛ, Ł , For airstream mechanism, phonation, and secondary articulation: S&N(1994) IPA unaspirated(tense) ◌: ◌˭ palatalized ◌́ ◌ʲ labio-palatalized ◌́ʷ ◌ᶣ pharyngealized ◌ ◌ˤ ejective(glottalized) ◌̇/◌̣ ◌ʼ Voiceless consonants that are unmarked are aspirated .
Consonants in parentheses are considered to have unreliable reconstruction; labialization in parentheses marks a transfer of labialization onto an adjacent vowel. The exact meaning of consonants with a question mark in parentheses is not explained; it is unclear if it is used to indicate presumptive value or for dubiousness.
Pairs of consonants separated by a slash have known distribution, while those separated by a tilde have unknown distribution. Consonants preceding a hyphen occur in initial position.
+ Reconstructed consonants and sound shiftsadapted from Starostin & Nikolayev (1994) Proto-NWC Proto-Abazgi Ubykh Proto-Circassian *p *p p *p *p˭ *b b *p˭ *b *b b *b *pʼ *pʼ pʼ *pʼ *f *f f *x(ʷ) *w *w w *w *m *m m *m *pʲ *p tʷ *t *p˭ʲ *b (dʷ~tʷ) *t˭ *bʲ *b dʷ *d *pʼʲ *pʼ tʼʷ *tʼ *pʷ *p f *p *bʷ *f f *b *pᶣ *tsʲ tʷ *bᶣ *dzʲ dʷ *d *pʼᶣ *tsʼʲ tʼʷ *tʼ *pˤ *p vˤ *p *p˭ˤ bˤ *p˭ *bˤ *b bˤ *b *pʼˤ pʼˤ *pʼ *mˤ *m mˤ *m *t *t t *t *t˭ *d d *t˭ *d *d d *d *tʼ *tʼ tʼ *tʼ *r *r d-, r~ʁ *t˭-, *r *n *n n *n *rʲ *r ɮ *dz *tʷ *tʷ tʷ *tʰ *t˭ʷ *d(ʷ) tʷ t˭ *dʷ *dʷ dʷ *d *tʼʷ *tʼʷ tʼʷ *tʼ *tᶣ *tʷ *ts *tʼᶣ tʼʷ tʼʷ tsʼ *ts *ts ts *s-, *ts *ts˭ *ts ts *ts˭ *dz *dz dz *dz~*z *tsʼ *tsʼ tsʼ *tsʼ *s *s s *s *z *z dz~z *z *tsʲ *tsʲ tsʲ (*s) *ts˭ʲ *dzʲ(?) tsʲ *ts˭ *dzʲ *dzʲ dzʲ *dz~*z *tsʼʲ *tsʼʲ tsʼʲ *tsʼ *sʲ *sʲ sʲ *s *zʲ *z dzʲ~zʲ *z *tsʷ *tsʷ tsʷ sʷ- *ts˭ʷ *tsʷ tsʷ *ts˭ʷ *dzʷ *dzʷ *dzʷ *tsʼʷ *tsʼʷ tsʼʷ *tsʼʷ *sʷ *sʷ sʷ *sʷ *zʷ *zʷ dzʷ~zʷ *zʷ *tsᶣ (*tʃ) *tsʲ *dzᶣ *dʒ~*ʒ dʒʲ *dzʲ *tsʼᶣ *tʃʼ tʃʼʲ *tsʼʲ *sᶣ *sʲ tʃʷ *sʲ *zᶣ *dzʲ~*zʲ ʒʷ *zʲ *tʃ *tsʲ ts *s *dʒ *dzʲ dz *dz~*z *tʃʼ *tsʼʲ tsʼ *tsʼʲ(?) *ʃ(~*ʃ˭) *sʲ s *s *ʒ *zʲ z *z *tɕ *tɕ tɕ *tɕ *tɕ˭ *dzʲ(~*tɕ) tɕ *tɕ˭ *dʑ *dʑ dʑ *dʑ~*ʑ *tɕʼ *tɕʼ tɕʼ *tɕʼ *ɕ *ʃ(?) ɕ *ʃ *ɕ˭ *ʃ ɕ *ʃ˭ *ʑ *ʒ ʑ *ʒ *j *j j *j *tʃʷ *tʃ tʃ *tɕ *tʃ˭ʷ *zʷ tʃ *tɕ˭ *dʒʷ *dzʷ~*zʷ dʒ *dʑ~*ʑ *tʃʼʷ *tʃʼ tʃʼ *tɕʼ *ʃʷ *sʷ ʃ *ʃ *ʃ˭ʷ *ʃ ʃ *ʃ˭ *ʒʷ *zʲ(?) ʒ *ʒ *tɕʷ *tʃ tɕ *tʃ *tɕ˭ʷ *dʒ~*ʒ tɕ *tʃ˭ *tɕʼʷ *tʃʼ tɕʼ *tʃʼ *ɕʷ *ʃʷ ʃʷ *sʲ *ɕ˭ʷ *ʃ sʷ *ʃ˭ *ʑʷ *ʒʷ ʒʷ *zʲ *tɬ *x ɕ *tɕ *tɬ˭ *ts (sʲ) *tɕ˭ *dɮ *l ɮ *tħ *tɬʼ *x/*tsʼ tsʼʲ *tɕʼ *ɬ sʲ *ɕ *ɬ˭ *x sʲ *ɕ˭ *l *l d-, ∅~j *tħ-, *ɮ *tɬʲ *xʲ *ɕ *tɕ *dɮʲ *ɣʲ ʁ(~zʲ) *ɣ *tɬʼʲ *ɕ tɬʼ *tɬʼ *ɬʲ(~*ɬ˭ʲ) *ɕ ɬ *ɬ *ɮʲ *ʑ ɮ *ɮ *lʲ *r-, *l~*ɣʲ ɮ *d- *tɬʷ *tsʷ tsʷ *tʃ *tɬ˭ʷ *tsʷ tsʷ *tʃ˭ *dɮʷ *l w *ħ *tɬʼʷ *tsʼ(ʷ) tsʼ(ʷ) *tʃʼ *ɬʷ *ʃ sʷ *x(ʷ) *ɬ˭ʷ *ʃ s(ʷ) *ɕ˭ *tɬᶣ *tʃʷ f *x *tɬ˭ᶣ *ʒʷ dʑ *tɕ˭ *dɮᶣ *dʒʷ dʒ *dɮ *tɬʼᶣ *tʃʼʷ tsʼ *tɕʼ *ɬᶣ(~*ɬ˭ᶣ) *ʃ ʃʷ *x(ʷ) *ɮᶣ *ʒ ʒʷ *ɣʲ *k *k kʲ *kʲ *ɡ *ɡ ɡʲ *ɡʲ *kʼ *kʼ kʼʲ *kʼʲ *x *x ɕ *x *ɣ *ɣ ɣ~ʁ *ɣ *kʲ *kʲ *kʲ *ɡʲ *ɡʲ ɡʲ *ɡʲ *kʼʲ *kʼʲ kʼʲ *kʼʲ *xʲ *xʲ sʲ *ɕ *ɣʲ *ɣʲ zʲ *ʑ *kʷ *kʷ kʷ *kʷ *k˭ʷ *ɡʷ ɡʷ *k˭ʷ *ɡʷ *ɡʷ ɡʷ *ɡʷ *kʼʷ *kʼʷ kʼʷ *kʼʷ *xʷ *xʷ x *x(ʷ) *ɡᶣ *ɡʷ ɡʲ *ɡʷ *kʼᶣ *kʼʷ kʼʲ *kʼᶣ *xᶣ *sʷ xʲ *xʷ *ɣᶣ(?) *zʷ ʁʲ *ʁʷ *q (*ħ) q *q- *q˭ *q q *q˭ *ɢ *ɣ ʁ *ʁ *qʼ *qʼ qʼ *q˭ *χ *ħ χ *χ *ʁ *ʕ ʁ *ʁ *q˭ʲ *q qʲ *ɢʲ *ɣʲ ʁʲ *qʼʲ *qʼʲ qʼʲ *ʡ *χʲ *ħ xʲ *χʲ *ʁʲ *ʕ ʁʲ *ʁ *qʷ *ħʷ qʷ *qʷ-, *q˭ʷ *q˭ʷ *qʷ qʷ *q˭ʷ *ɢʷ *ɣʷ ʁʷ *ʁʷ *qʼʷ *qʼʷ qʼʷ *q˭ʷ *χʷ *ħʷ χʷ *χʷ *ʁʷ *ʕʷ ʁʷ *ʁʷ *qᶣ *ħ(ʷ) xʲ *qʷ- *q˭ᶣ qʲ *q˭ʷ *ɢᶣ *ɣ(ʷ) ʁʲ *ʁʷ *qʼᶣ *ʕʷ (*qʼʷ?) qʼʲ *ʡʷ *χᶣ *ħ(ʷ) χʲ *χʷ *ʁᶣ *ʕ(ʷ) ʁʲ *ʁʷ *q˭ˤ *ʕ *q˭ *qʼˤ *ħ(?) qʼˤ *q˭ *χˤ χˤ *χ *ʁˤ *ʕ ʁˤ *ʁ *qˤʲ *q q(ˤ) *ħ *q˭ˤʲ *ʡ qʼ *ʡ *qʼˤʲ *ħ qʼ *ʡ *χˤʲ *ħ χ(ˤ) *ħ *ʁˤʲ *ʕ ʁ *j *qˤʷ *ħʷ χˤʷ *qʷ- *q˭ˤʷ *ʕʷ qˤ(ʷ) *q˭ʷ *qʼˤʷ *qʼʷ (*qʷ) qʼˤʷ *q˭ʷ *χˤʷ *ħʷ χˤʷ *χʷ *ʁˤʷ (*ħʷ?) ʁˤʷ *ʁʷ *qˤᶣ *qʷ χʷ *ħ *q˭ˤᶣ *ʕʷ qʼʷ *ʡʷ *qʼˤᶣ *ħʷ qʼʷ *ʡʷ *ʁˤᶣ *ʕʷ w *w~*ʁʷ
Grammar Numbers English Proto-NWC Schulze Proto-NWC Colarusso Proto-Abazgi Abkhaz Abaza Ubykh Proto-Circassian Adyghe Kabardian One za – za-kʼə akʼə zakʼə za zə zə zə Two tʼqʷʼa tʼqʼo ʕʷ-ba ɥ-ba ʕʷ-ba tʼqʷʼa tʷʼə tʷʼə tʷʼə Three λ:ə (y-)x̂ə/a χ-ba χ-ba/x-ba χ-ba ʂa ɕə ɕə ɕə Four pʼλʼa – pɕ-ba pɕ-ba pɕ-ba pʼɬʼə t͡ɬə pɬʼə pɬʼə Five sx̂ʷə (w-/y-)ćx̂ə χʷ-ba χʷ-ba/xʷ-ba χʷ-ba ɕxə txʷə tfə txʷə Six ɬʷə (w-)x̂cə tʃʷba? f-ba t͡s-ba fə xə xə xə Seven bδə ɣə́ bəʑ-ba bəʑ-ba bəʑ-ba blə bɮə blə bɮə Eight – (w-/y-)ɣə/a aʕ-ba aa-ba aʕ-ba ʁʷa jə jə jə Nine bğʷʲə ɣə́ – ʑʷ-ba ʒʷ-ba bʁʲə bʁʷə bʁʷə bʁʷə Ten bćʷʼə (p-/w-)źə́/źá – ʑʷa-ba ʒʷa-ba ʑʷə pʃʼə pʃʼə pɕʼə
Vocabulary English Proto-NWC Proto-Abazgi Abkhaz Abaza Ubykh Proto-Circassian Adyghe Kabardian I – sa/sarˈa sa/sarˈa sa/sarˈa səsan sa sa sa Heart ɡʲʷə ɡʷə ɡʷə ɡʷə ɡʲə ɡʷə ɡʷə ɡʷə Sea – – – – ɕʷa xə xə xə They sell it – – – – aːɕan – jaːɕan jaːɕan I go – – – – skʲʼan skʷʼan skʷʼan skʷʼan I say – – – – sqʼan – sʔʷan sʔʷan Language/tongue bǝźA bzǝ aːbz bzǝ bza bza bza bza Red – – – – pɬə pɬəʑ pɬəʑ pɬəʑ Book, Letter – – – – txəɬ txəɬ txəɬ txəɬ top of the back – – – – txə txə txə txə Ox c:ʷǝ t͡sʷə á-ć̌ t͡ʃʷə t͡sʷə t͡sʷːə t͡sʷə, t͡ʃʷə və Blood – – – – ɬa ɬə ɬə ɬə Month/Moon – – aːmza məzə məʒa maːza maːza maːza Beard – – – – ʒaːkʲʼa ʒaːkʲʼa ʒaːt͡ʃʼa ʒaːt͡ʃʼa Dust – – – – saːpa saːpa saːpa saːba Barefoot – – – – ɬapsʼə ɬapsʼa ɬapt͡sʼa ɬapt͡sʼa Donkey – – – – t͡ʃədə ʃədə ʃədə ʃədə Hedgehog – – – – pəzʲə pəʐ pəʐ – Water – – – – bzə psə psə psə Fault – – – – laːʑa laːʑa laːʑa laːʑa House ʁ́Iʷǝna – – ʕʷna – wəna wəna wəna Mother (a)nǝ (a)nǝ á-n anǝ na aːna nə aːna Father (a)ṕ:ǝ ab ab aba tʷǝ at:a tǝ aːda heavy anǝTa xanǝta á-χ́anta χ́anta – want:aʁʷ wantaʁʷ wandaʁʷ cattle-shed anǝTa bawǝ-ra bora a-bóra, -bówra bow – – bow guest – – – – pč̣́a ħa-č̣́á ħaṣ́a ħāč̣́a mountain / hill bǝɣA – bʁa – – bɣǝ bɣǝ bɣǝ measles / scarlet fever / navel bǝč̣́ǝ bǝč̣́ǝ a-bč̣́ǝ́ bč̣́ǝ bǝč̣́ǝ́ – nǝbǝǯ́ bǝnža dust / bubble / blister bǝbǝ – á-bǝb – – psǝ-bǝb psǝ-bǝb psǝ-bǝb
See also
Proto-Circassian language Proto-Abazgi language
References
External links Abkhaz-Adyghe etymology