The background of the 2011 Bahraini uprising dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century. The Bahraini people have protested sporadically throughout the last decades demanding social, economic and political rights. Demonstrations were present as early as the 1920s and the first municipal election was held in 1926. Ruled by Al Khalifas since 1783, Bahrain was a British protectorate for most of the twentieth century. The National Union Committee (NUC) formed in 1954 was the earliest serious challenge to the status quo. Two year after its formation, NUC leaders were imprisoned and deported by authorities.
In 1971, Bahrain became an independent state and in 1973 the country held its first parliamentary election. However, only two years later, the constitution was suspended and the assembly dissolved by the late Emir. In 1992, 280 society leaders demanded the return of the parliament and constitution, which the government rejected. Two years later a popular uprising erupted. Throughout the uprising large demonstrations and acts of violence occurred. Over forty people were killed, including several detainees while in police custody and at least three policemen. In 1999, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa succeeded his father. He successfully ended the uprising in 2001 after introducing wide range reforms. The following year, opposition associations "felt betrayed" after the government issued a unilateral new constitution. They boycotted the 2002 parliamentary election, however in 2006 one of them, Al Wefaq won a majority. The participation in elections increased the split between opposition associations. Haq Movement was founded and utilized street protests to seek change instead of bringing change within the parliament. The period between 2007 and 2010 saw sporadic protests which were followed by large arrests.
The state of human rights in Bahrain was criticized in the period between 1975 and 2001. Following 2001 reforms, human rights improved significantly. They began deteriorating again in the end of 2007 when torture and repression tactics were being used again. By 2010, torture had become common and Bahrain's human rights record was described as "dismal" by Human Rights Watch. The Shia minority have long complained of what they call systemic discrimination. They accuse the government of naturalizing Sunnis from neighboring countries and gerrymandering electoral districts. Bahrain is relatively poor when compared to its oil-rich Gulf neighbors; its oil has "virtually dried up" and it depends on banking and the tourism sector. Unemployment rate in Bahrain is among the highest in the region. Extreme poverty did not exist in Bahrain where the average daily income is , however 11 percent of citizens suffered from relative poverty.
Modern history
The Al Khalifas have ruled Bahrain since 1783 after expelling the Persians. In 1868, Bahrain was captured and dominated by the British. The country was a protectorate "guided" by the British, despite having the Al Khalifas as rulers. In 1923, the British replaced Sheikh Issa bin Ali with his son and introduced a series of administrative reforms. Three years later the British placed the country under the de facto rule of Charles Belgrave who operated as an adviser to the ruler until 1957. Having no legal code, the country's judiciary was run by Belgrave giving him the ability to control any opposition movement.
In the 1950s sectarian clashes occurred when a group of Sunnis including members of the royal family, among them the ruler's brother, attacked a Shia religious ritual and a neighborhood. Although many thought it was a "deliberate provocation to create sectarian divisions", the violence lasted for two years. In 1954, the National Union Committee (NUC) was set up by middle-class Sunnis and Shias. They said Belgrave was "helping foment religious hatred and imprisoning innocent people" and demanded his removal as well as installing a democratic system and a code of law. The NUC is regarded by Bahraini scholar Abdulhadi Khalaf as the "earliest serious and still enduring challenge to ethnic politics in Bahrain". The committee lasted for two years until the British crushed the uprising, imprisoning and deporting its leaders.
In 1965 a month-long uprising broke after hundreds of workers at Bahrain Petroleum Company were laid off. Several general strikes were staged, however the movement was crushed again by the British. In 1966, the British persuaded Bahrain to appoint another "adviser", this time a Colonel called Ian Henderson. The purpose, according to secret British documents was "to give Henderson a free hand to reorganise it [the "Special Branch"] into an efficient, modern covert surveillance 'anti terrorist' organisation". Henderson was then known for his alleged role in ordering torture and assassinations during Kenya's Mau Mau Uprising. Henderson freed all those imprisoned in the 1965 uprising and allowed protest-related militants to return. This move was analyzed later as "building up an intricate system of infiltrators and double agents inside the protest movement".
In 1971 Bahrain became independent from Britain and in 1973 the country held its first parliamentary election. Most of the elected members were independents and leftists who called for reforms such as limiting the spendings of the royal family.Jane Kinninmont (28 February 2011). "Bahrain’s Re-Reform Movement". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 21 July 2012. Two years later the constitution was suspended and the assembly dissolved by the late Emir, Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa after it rejected the State Security Law. The act also known as "the precautionary law" was proposed by Henderson. It gave police wide arresting powers and allowed individuals to be held in prison without trial or charge for up to three years for mere suspicion "that they might be a threat to the state". An official said the Parliament had "hindered the government" and it would only be restored "[o]nce we feel that we need it, when it is suitable for our society and development".
Starting in August 1975, widespread arrests were conducted including members of the dissolved parliament. The "ruthless system of repression" launched by Henderson lasted for over twenty five years. During this period, opposition demanded the restoration of the parliament and constitution. Repeated allegations of systematic torture, arbitrary arrests of thousands and assassinations made by opposition and human rights activists were denied by Henderson who said he "has never been involved in torture nor has he ever ordered his officers to torture those who have been arrested".
In 1981, the government arrested seventy three individuals and accused them of plotting an Iran sponsored coup d'état. They were held in solitary confinement and allegedly tortured before getting long term sentences. In 1992, a petition signed by 280 society leaders, including some of the dissolved parliament members demanded the restoration of the national assembly. Initially, the government set up a thirty-member appointed "Shura council" assigned with "commenting" on government proposed legislation. Another petition the following month concluded that the newly formed council "does not replace the national assembly as a constitutional and legislative authority". A delegation of six members, half Sunnis and half Shias representing petition organizers met with the Emir who told them Shura council "was all [they] could expect"."Routine Abuse, Routine Denial: Civil Rights and the Political Crisis in Bahrain". Human Rights Watch. UNHCR. 1 January 2006. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
1990s uprising
In 1994, an uprising erupted in which leftists, liberals and Islamists joined forces to demand democratic reforms. The uprising described then as the largest in the country's history, included widespread demonstrations and violence.Adam Curtis (11 May 2012). "If you take my advice - I'd repress them". BBC News. Retrieved 27 June 2012. It started in June 1994, when over 1,500 demonstrator organized a sit-in front of Ministry of Labor protesting the increasing rate of unemployment which had reached 15 percent. Riot police dispersed them using tear gas. Similar incidents occurred in August and September. Another petition was launched, this time it was open to all citizens. Organizers said they collected over 20,000 signatures most of whom were Shia.
During the uprising, opposition leaders were arrested and some exiled. Some protesters used Molotov cocktails to attack "police stations, banks and commercial properties". On the other hand, riot police used tear and rubber bullets, sometimes "fired at street level and from helicopters". It was also reported that police used live ammunition on some occasions. Opposition activists accused the government of "deliberately fomenting sectarian hatreds". Over forty people were killed, including several detainees while in police custody allegedly due to torture and at least three policemen.
2000s
Protests and violence continued until February 2001 when the new Emir brought several political reforms to the country. Following intensive contacts and discussions, opposition leaders accepted the National Action Charter of Bahrain proposed by the Emir. The Charter called for "a constitutional monarchy, an independent judiciary and a bicameral legislature made-up of a lower house of elected representatives and an upper house of appointed legislators. The charter also gave equal rights to men and women, with all citizens having equal political rights and being entitled to elections and candidacy according to the law"."Country Theme: Elections: Bahrain" . Programme on Governance in the Arab Region. Retrieved 27 May 2012. Over 98 percent of Bahraini people voted in favor of the Charter. "عبدالوهاب حسين". Al Wasat. 30 April 2005. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
In 2002, the government unilaterally announced a new constitution. Despite promising that the appointed upper house "would be limited to 'advising'", it was given more powers and exercised a "de facto veto" over the elected lower half. The government also gave a controversial general amnesty which included opposition activists as well as alleged torturers. Political parties remained banned, but were allowed to operate as associations. Other than that, most of the reforms were important, including increasing freedom of expression, releasing over 1,300 "political" prisoners, revoking the State Security Law, reforming police and ending torture."Torture Redux". Human Rights Watch. 8 February 2010. Retrieved 21 July 2012. The Emir of Bahrain became a King who enjoyed wide executive authorities which include appointing the Prime Minister and his ministers, commanding the army, chairing the Higher Judicial Council, appointing the parliament's upper half and dissolving its elected lower half.