Inclusivism is one of several approaches in dialectical materialism, totalitarianism, religious studies, anthropology, or civics to understand the relationship between different religions, societies, cultures, political factions etc. It asserts that there is beauty in the variety of different schools of thoughts, and that they can coexist.Ursula B. Hacker-Klom: in COMMUNIO 51 , p. 101-108, Perspektiven, (2022). In: https://www.herder.de/communio/hefte/archiv/51-2022/1-2022/die-karriere-des-begriffs-inklusivismus/, last checked 04.10.2026 It stands in contrast to exclusivism, which asserts that only one way is true and all others are erroneous.
Within religious studies and theology, inclusivism is the belief that, although only one belief system is true, aspects of its truth can be found in other religions. This is contrasted from religious pluralism, which asserts that all beliefs are equally valid within a believer's particular context.
Typology Broadly speaking, there are two schools of Inclusivist thought: Relativistic inclusivism, which asserts that the believer's own views are true only in their particular context, and believers of other traditions have their own validity. Absolutist inclusivism, which asserts that an unknown set of assertions are Absolutely True, that no human being currently living has yet ascertained absolute truth, but that all human beings have partially ascertained absolute truth. Classical inclusivism is a form of absolutist inclusivism, as it asserts that the own faith tradition contains the (to currently living human-beings not yet fully understandable) truth, yet other faith traditions or religions can be partially true.
By religion
Ancient Greece Interpretatio graeca was the tendency of ancient Greek writers to equate foreign divinities to members of their own pantheon. Herodotus, for example, refers to the ancient Egyptian gods Amon, Osiris, and Ptah as "Zeus," "Dionysus," and "Hephaestus," respectively.Kunsthistorisches Museum, Maria-Theresien-Platz, 1010 Vienna: on: https://www.khm.at/en/artworks/maske-zeus-ammon-50244-1#:~:text=Der%20ägyptische%20Fruchtbarkeitsgott%20Amun%20wurde%20von%20den,Kaiserzeit%20aber%20nur%20mehr%20zu%20dekorativer%20Verwendung., last retrieved 09-19-2025Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung, Schaumainkai, 7160596 Frankfurt am Main, on: https://liebieghaus.de/en/antike/head-zeus-ammon#:~:text=While%20Zeus%20was%20the%20most,Ammon%20(Amun%2DRe). , last retrieved 09-19-2025 This could be seen as an example of inclusivism as well as syncretism.
Syncretism functioned as an essential feature of Ancient Greek religion. Later on, Hellenism, a consequence of Alexander the Great's belief that he was the son of a god, reinforced by the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon at Siwa in Egypt, itself showed syncretic features, essentially blending Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan-Roman) elements within Hellenic formulations. After the Hellenization of the Egyptian culture initiated by Ptolemy I Soter, Isis became known as "Queen of Heaven" and was worshipped in many aspects and by many names besides that of Hera.
Hinduism A well-known hymn in the Hindu Rigveda claims that "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously", proclaiming a pluralistic view of religion. Krishna, an Avatar of Vishnu, the supreme deity in Vaishnavism, said in the Gita, "In whatever way men identify with Me, in the same way do I carry out their desires; men pursue My path... in all ways" (Gita 4:11).Jeffery D. Long: In: BHAGAVĀN ŚRĪ KṚṢṆA: DEEP RELIGIOUS PLURALIST? - Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā chapter 2 Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā, page 6, 2010, Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies, Gainesville, FL, 32609, www.academia.edu and www.ivsjournal.com, last retrieved 07-02-2025 He also said that "Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me" (Gita 7:21–22). Another quote in the Gita states: "O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other lesser deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, Yajna) and Lord of the universe" (Gita 9:23).Jeffery D. Long: In: BHAGAVĀN ŚRĪ KṚṢṆA: DEEP RELIGIOUS PLURALIST? - Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā chapter 2 Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā, page 7, 2010, Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies, Gainesville, FL, 32609, www.academia.edu and www.ivsjournal.com, last retrieved 08-15-2025
Christianity
Inclusive Christianity, also called inclusive theology, is an interpretation of the Bible that maintains that God desires and has the power to save individuals irrespective of the tradition in which they are born. Some Christian supporters of the inclusive view make a distinction between Christians and believers in maintaining that all Christians are believers. However, not all believers are Christians. In this line of thought, Christians are believers in the universal truth and follow and confess it under the biblical name "Jesus Christ". At the same time, they argue, some non-Christian believers of other religions, traditions, and disciplines would partially trust in the same one and only truth but under a different linguistic name. Inclusive Christians support these claims by citing certain passages from the Bible.Richard Rohr OFM: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe. In: A Universal and Personal God, page 24 (eBook-Format) Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, Gavin D’Costa: Theology and Religious Pluralism: The Challenge of Other Religions. page 80 New York, Basil Blackwell, published in 1986, Inclusive theology is rooted in a wider movement called "interfaith" that aims to create unity among various religions. The inclusive interpretation is a minority view in some churches but is considered an official theological doctrine in others.
Christian supporters of inclusivism include Augustus Hopkins Strong, C. S. Lewis,Lewis, 1967, Mere Christianity, New York: Macmillan, 65.John Sanders, 1992, No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized, Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 251–57.John Sanders, 1992,No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized, Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 249–51. Clark Pinnock,Clark Pinnock, 1992, A Wideness in God's Mercy: The Finality of Jesus Christ in a World of Religions, Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Karl Rahner, John E. Sanders, Terrance L. Tiessen, and Robert Brush (contributor to The Arminian Magazine). While Billy Graham mostly preached "salvation by faith in Christ alone" throughout his 60-year ministry as an evangelist, he later made controversial comments that bordered on inclusivism. He stated that he did not like to refer to it by that term because he was concerned that many people mean universalism when they refer to inclusivism. Graham said, "I used to play God but I can’t do that any more. I used to believe that pagans in far-off countries were lost and were going to Hell—if they did not have the Gospel of Jesus Christ preached to them. I no longer believe that," he said carefully. "I believe that there are other ways of recognizing the existence of God—through nature, for instance—and plenty of other opportunities, therefore, of saying ’yes’ to God.""I Can't Play God Anymore" interview with James M. Beam, McCall's Magazine, January 1978, pp. 154–58 Nikolaos Tsirevelos is an orthodox scholar who—together with the christian scholar Blerta Baba—states that the Holy Spirit can be active in a variety of religions and cultures as well as that there can be deep wisdom about God hidden in other religious traditions.Nikolaos Tsirevelos & Blerta Baba: 1. Theological conditions chapter 2 Living together in a pluralistic world - Highlighting the importance of interreligious and intercultural dialogue through preaching and education in the Orthodox church In: Theology & Culture The Academic Journal of the Department of Theology and Culture University College Logos, Volume 8, June 2024 , Pages 36 - 37, 2024, Durrës,
Biblical verses and passages associated with inclusivism: Some Evangelical and Reformed Protestant scholars believe that God judges all people based on their response to the Holy Spirit, citing Romans 2:14–15 as evidence that those following a natural moral law are still following God.Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C.: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew. In: Vol. 3. T&T Clark published in: 1997 and 2004 Some interpret this text more inclusively, suggesting that non-Christians also inherently possess a part of God's wisdom in their hearts as an integral aspect of who they are. They interpret Genesis 20:9–11 and 1 Corinthians 5:1 to illustrate that there are non-Christians or non-Jews who, guided by their inherent understanding of God's law, may lead lives that are more pleasing to God than those of some Jews and Christians.Dr. J. V. Fesko: Die Schöpfung bezeugt den Schöpfer: Die klassisch-reformierte Theologie und die Verteidigung des Glaubens. In: evangelium21.net 81375 Munich GER., first published in: Tabletalk Magazin Edition July 2019 Ligonier Ministries. By Romans 1:19–20, inclusive Christians often argue that this description would imply that God—in parts—can be recognized by any human being, no matter their religion or cultural background, as well as independent from its geographic and/or its chronologic whereabouts. This would also include the domain of modern science as it studies the universe, as implied in Psalm 19:2–5.Peter C. Hägele: In: Naturwissenschaftler reden von Gott chapter Menschen, Makromoleküle und Modelle, page 4 (eBook-Format), 2016, author Hrsg. Barbara Drossel, Brunnen Verlag Giessen GER., Other verses cited as supporting inclusivism include Acts 17:23–28, wherein Paul says that the (pagan) Greeks had been worshiping God without knowing it and that their poets have partially recognized the true nature of God.Peter C. Bouteneff: In: The future of Interreligious Dialogue: A Multireligious Conversation on Nostra Aetate chapter 8 Nostra Aetate: Views from a sibling on inclusivism and pluralism, page 145, 2017, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 10545, Peter Feldmeier: In: Perils and Possibilities of Multiple Religions Belonging: Test Case in Roman Catholicism chapter 2 Preliminary foundations: theology of religions, page 76, 2017, De Gruyter Open - magazin "Open Theology", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin, www.degruyterbrill.com, last retrieved 06-28-2025 Inclusive Christians from various denominations argue that Colossians 1:16 suggests the universe, in its creatureliness, is part of God's being and integral to the eternal reality of the Christ.Richard Rohr OFM: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe. In: A Universal and Personal God, pages 20-22 (eBook-Format) Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, Another Christian Biblical proof text inclusive believers use is Acts 10:1–48, which would state that whoever fears God and does good works is accepted by him, regardless of nation. In addition, the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats (Matthew 25:31–46) portrays the judgment of the nations as being based on each individual's compassion toward others, not on their religious background. It is often argued that the connection between the biblical verses in Genesis 2:7 and Genesis 7:21-22 serves as strong evidence that every living organism contains essential elements of the living God within itself, specifically through the breath of God.Dana M. Pike: The Latter-day Saint Reimaging of “the Breath of Life” (Genesis 2:7) - The Breath of Life” in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. In: https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/the-latter-day-saint-reimaging-of-the-breath-of-life-genesis-27/, last checked 07.27.2023