Phycotoxins () are complex allelopathic chemicals produced by eukaryotic and prokaryotic algal secondary metabolic pathways. More simply, these are toxic chemicals synthesized by photosynthetic organisms. These metabolites are (in most cases) not harmful to the producer but may be toxic to either one or many members of the marine food web. This page focuses on phycotoxins produced by marine microalgae; however, freshwater algae and macroalgae are known phycotoxin producers and may exhibit analogous ecological dynamics. In the pelagic marine food web, phytoplankton are subjected to grazing by macro- and micro-zooplankton as well as competition for nutrients with other phytoplankton species. Marine bacteria try to obtain a share of organic carbon by maintaining symbiotic, parasitic, commensal, or predatory interactions with phytoplankton. Other bacteria will degrade dead phytoplankton or consume organic carbon released by viral lysis. The production of toxins is one strategy that phytoplankton use to deal with this broad range of predators, competitors, and parasites. Smetacek suggested that "planktonic evolution is ruled by protection and not competition. The many shapes of plankton reflect defense responses to specific attack systems". Indeed, phytoplankton retain an abundance of mechanical and chemical defense mechanisms including cell walls, spines, chain/colony formation, and toxic chemical production. These morphological and physiological features have been cited as evidence for strong predatory pressure in the marine environment. However, the importance of competition is also demonstrated by the production of phycotoxins that negatively impact other phytoplankton species. Flagellates (especially dinoflagellates) are the principle producers of phycotoxins; however, there are known toxigenic diatoms, cyanobacteria, prymnesiophytes, and raphidophytes. Because many of these allelochemicals are large and energetically expensive to produce, they are synthesized in small quantities. However, phycotoxins are known to accumulate in other organisms and can reach high concentrations during algal blooms. Additionally, as biologically active metabolites, phycotoxins may produce ecological effects at low concentrations. These effects may be subtle, but have the potential to impact the biogeographic distributions of phytoplankton and bloom dynamics.
Potential ecological effects
Anti-grazing effects Phycotoxins may prevent grazing by several mechanisms: grazer death, infertility, or deterrence. Some evidence of anti-grazing effects: Teegarden found that three different species of copepods were able to distinguish between a saxitoxin-producing Alexandrium sp. and morphologically similar non-toxigenic Alexandrium sp. by chemosensory means. These three different copepod species grazed predominantly on the non-toxigenic Alexandrium spp. and avoided the saxitoxin-producer. However, the effect of saxitoxin deterrence varied per copepod species. This implies that saxitoxin producing Alexandrium sp. have an advantage over non-toxigenic dinoflagellates. Miralto et al. reported a low hatching success of eggs laid by copepods that fed on diatoms containing polyunsaturated aldehydes. When ingested by copepods, these aldehydes appear to arrest embryonic development. This has the potential to decrease the future population of copepods and promote the survival of copepods which do not eat as many diatoms.
Anti-microbial effects Phycotoxins production may be useful to ward off parasitic or algicidal heterotrophic bacteria. Some evidence of anti-microbial effects: Bates et al. was able to enhance domoic acid production in Pseudo-nitzschia multseries with the re-introduction of bacteria. Additionally, P. multiseries cultures which were completely axenic (bacteria-free), produce less domoic acid than P. multiseries cultures which have contained bacteria for several generations. Sieburth found acrylic acid inhibited gut microflora in penguins. High concentrations of acrylic acid were ingested by penguins via their euphasid diet, which had been feeding on Phaeocystis. The antimicrobial effect of acrylic acid was verified by Slezak et al. who concluded that acrylic acid will inhibit bacterial production in situations where phytoplankton form aggregates (i.e. marine snow or Phaeocystis blooms). However, acrylic acid production may also serve to keep bacteria away from the phytoplankton in more dilute concentrations.
Competitive effects Since many different species of phytoplankton compete for a limited number of nutrients (see Paradox of the Plankton), it's possible that phycotoxin production is used as a method to either kill competitors or to keep other phytoplankton out of the producer's nutrients space. Some evidence of competitive effects: Graneli showed that Prymnesium spp. will produce phycotoxins which kill competitors under nitrogen or phosphorus limitation. Fistarol et al. found that Alexandrium spp. produce toxins which decrease the growth rate of other phytoplankton and change community composition. Prince et al. showed that chemical exudates from the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis decreased the growth rate and sometimes killed competitor species by decreasing their photosynthetic efficiency and increasing membrane permeability.
List of known phycotoxins and mechanisms of action Most characterized phycotoxins have some economic or health impact on humans. Other well-studied phycotoxins are potential or existing pharmaceuticals or have some use in cellular research. Therefore, our level of knowledge on individual toxins does not necessarily reflect their ecological relevance. Additionally, the mode of action and level of toxicity are effects that have been documented in macroorganisms (typically mice). These modes of action may be different in the pelagic marine environment. However, it is unlikely that the synthesis of complex and energetically expensive chemicals should be conserved over evolutionary time if they do not confer some advantage on the producer. Even if we do not yet know the effect of many toxins in their natural environment, their mere presence and impressive diversity indicates that they do serve some ecological purpose.
The phytoplankton species listed below do not encompass the entire range of known toxigenic species. There exists experimental evidence for phytoplankton species that have inhibitory effects on grazers or other phytoplankton species, but their toxins have not been identified.
Table generated using information from Cembella, Shimizu Toxin group Toxin producing species Class Characteristics Mode of action Structure Domoic acid Pseudo-nitzschia spp. Bacillariophyceae Hydrophilic N-toxin Glutamate receptor agonist Saxitoxins (neosaxitoxins, gonyautoxins) Alexandrium spp., Pyrodinium bahamense, Gymnodinium catenatum Dinophyceae Hydrophilic N-toxin Na+-channel blocker (site 1) Anabaena spp., Aphanizomenon spp., Cylindrospermopsis spp., Lyngbya spp., Planktothrix spp., Oscillatoria spp. Cyanobacteria Ciguatoxin Gambierdiscus toxicus Dinophyceae Ladder-frame polyether Na+-channel activator (site 5) Gambieric acid Gambierdiscus toxicus Dinophyceae Ladder-frame polyether Maitotoxins Gambierdiscus toxicus Dinophyceae Ladder-frame polyether Ca2+-channel effector Osterotoxin Ostreopsis lenticularis Dinophyceae Ladder-frame polyether Unknown Cooliatoxin Coolia monotis Dinophyceae Ladder-frame polyether Unknown Brevetoxins Karenia brevis, K. brevi-sulcata Dinophyceae Ladder-frame polyether Na+-channel activator (site 5) Chatonella marina, C. antiqua, C. cf. verruculosa Raphidophyceae Yessotoxins Protoceratium reticulatum, Lingulodinium polyedrum Dinophyceae Ladder-frame polyether Affects cyclic AMP, cytotoxic Okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins Dinophysis spp., Prorocentrum spp. Dinophyceae Linear polyether Protein phosphatase inhibitor Pectenotoxin Dinophysis fortii, D. acuta Dinophyceae Macrocyclic polyether Unknown, hepatotoxic Azaspriracids Protoperidinium crassipes Dinophyceae Linear polyether Unknown, neurotoxic Gymnodimine Karenia selliformis Dinophyceae Macrolide Unknown, potentially neurotoxic Prymnesins Prymnesium parvum Prymnesiophyceae Linear polyether Unknown, potential Ca2+-channel effector Spirolide Alexandrium ostenfeldii Dinophyceae Macrocyclic polyether Muscarinic receptor or cholinesterase inhibitor Ostreocin (palytoxin) Ostreopsis siamensis Dinophyceae Linear polyether Na+/K+ ATPase disruptor Amphidinolide, Caribenolide Amphidinium spp. Dinophyceae Macrocyclic polyether Cytotoxic Goniodomin Alexandrium spp. Dinophyceae Macrocyclic polyether Prorocentrolide Prorocentrium lima Dinophyceae Macrocyclic polyether Scytophycins Scytonema spp. Cyanobacteria Linear polyether Cytotoxic Tolytoxin Tolypothrix conglutinata var. colorata Cyanobacteria Linear polyether Microfilament-depolymerizing agent Debromoaplysiatoxin Lyngbya majuscula Cyanobacteria Linear polyether Protein kinase C activator Amphidinols, Amphiketide Amphidinium spp. Dinophyceae Open-chain polyketides Antifungal Majusculamides, Curacins Lyngbya majuscula Cyanobacteria Open-chain polyketide Microtubulin assembly inhibitor Bacillariolides Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries Bacillariophyceae Eicosanoid Phospholipase A2 inhibitor Lyngbyatoxins Lyngbya majuscula Cyanobacteria Prenylated amino acid derivative Protein kinase C activator Polyunsaturated aldehydes Bacillariophyceae Polyunsaturated aldehydes Anti-mitotic, apoptosis Euglenophycin Euglena sanguinea Euglenoidea Polyketide Karlotoxin Karlodinium veneficum Dinophyceae Polyketide / Polyether Karmitoxin Karlodinium armiger Dinophyceae Polyketide / Polyether
Types of toxins
Excreted toxins Excreted toxins may help deter predators and bacteria which are drawn in by phytoplankton waste products. Phytoplankton are known to excrete waste metabolites into the surrounding environment. This is a potential source of reduced nutrients and carbon for bacteria and may act as a signal for predators which can detect and follow kairomone gradients in their environment. Excreted toxins would seem most advantageous to the individual cell in their ability to keep predators and/or parasitic and algicidal bacteria at a distance. However, continuous toxin production and excretion carries a metabolic cost. For excreted toxins to be effective, they must have a low molecular weight to rapidly diffuse in the marine environment and to be energetically cheap to produce. However, excreted toxins may not actually repel larger motile predators because molecular diffusivity is slow and turbulence at the millimeter scale is large in water. Excreted phycotoxins may act as repellents if their signal registers at the same speed as other signals that potential grazers can detect (kairomones), assuming both are encountered by a predator at the same time. Additionally, excreted toxins may be effective method of keeping harmful bacteria and other phytoplankton competitors outside of the phycotoxin producer's microzone of nutrients.
Contact toxins Contact toxins are effective if they impact the grazer or harmful bacterium immediately after contact with the phytoplankton producer. These toxins are located at the cell surface and are typically classified as glycoproteins, glycolipids, or polypeptides. These toxins would have to be highly specific to their target receptors to be effective.
Post-ingestion toxins