Rakni's Mound () is a large mound at Ullensaker in Akershus county, Norway. It is the largest free-standing prehistoric monument in Norway and is one of the largest barrows in Northern Europe. It dates to the Migration Age and has been the subject of three archaeological investigations.
Description and location The mound is 77 metres in diameter and over 15 metres in height,Rakni's Mound—The Largest Barrow in Northern Europe , Rakni's Mound, Akershus Kulturnett. the largest in Scandinavia.David Mackenzie Wilson, ed., The Northern World: The History and Heritage of Northern Europe A D 400–1100, London: Thames and Hudson / New York: Abrams, 1980, , p. 146 and Bjørn Myhre, "The Iron Age", in Cambridge History of Scandinavia volume 1 Prehistory to 1520, ed. Knut Helle, Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University, 2003, , pp. 60–93, p. 87, online edition p. 107 (pdf) both put its diameter at "approximately" or "nearly" 95 metres.Frans-Arne Stylegar, "Raknehaugen", Store norske leksikon online, retrieved 19 January 2012 Raknehaugen, Ullensaker, Gardermoen.no Carbon-14 dating in 1956–57 (the first use of the technique in Norway) dated its construction to the Migration Age, between 440 and 625.Older and Recent Research around Rakni’s Mound, Rakni's Mound, Akershus Kulturnett. Later research has refined this to the mid-6th century, probably between 533 and 551.Eldre og nyere forskning rundt Raknehaugen, Raknehaugen, Akershus Kulturnett: "på midten av 500-tallet e. Kr., trolig mellom 533 og 551 e. Kr." The corresponding English-language page incorrectly translates this BC.
It is located next to a small lake or pond near where the old road from Lake Mjøsa to Oslo and the road to Nannestad meet, probably the centre of an ancient chiefdom.Wilson, p. 134; Myhre, p. 87, pdf p. 107. The farm, which is mentioned in records from the Middle Ages, is called Ljøgodt from Ljoðgata (Old Norse for "main track"); another nearby farm, also mentioned in medieval sources, is called Haugen (from Old Norse haugr "hill; mound") after the mound.Rakni’s Mound and its Surrounding Cultural Landscape, Rakni's Mound, Akershus Kulturnett. The great mound was surrounded by smaller, later burials until the early twentieth century; aerial photographs show the outlines of more than 30 now effaced mounds, and archaeological excavations have dated burials between the 7th century and the Viking Age. They were mostly simple cremations with few grave goods,For example, an early Viking Age cremation burial uncovered in May 2009, which included fragments of a bone comb: Anne Ekornholmen, "Kull og menneskebein fra tidlig vikingtid", Romerikes Blad 13 June 2009 and three are in the trench around the mound itself.
Construction The mound was raised over three cone-shaped layers of approximately 75,000 stacked logs from 30,000 trees, on which were heaped some 80,000 cubic metres of sand taken from trenches around the mound, clay and soil.Collegium medievale 14 (2001) p. 46 Wilson, p. 146 states 125,000 logs. Dendrochronology and carbon-dating show 97% of the trees were felled in a single winter, in 533–551.L. Bender Jørgensen, "Rural Economy: Ecology, Hunting, Pastoralism, Agricultural and Nutritional Aspects" in The Scandinavians from the Vendel Period to the Tenth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, ed. Judith Jesch, Studies in historical archaeoethnology, Woodbridge, Suffolk/Rochester, New York: Boydell / San Marino: Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress, 2002, , p. 138. The construction has been estimated to have required the work of 40–50 people felling trees the winter before the mound was built, followed by 450–600 over the summer to build it;"Det meste av Raknehaugen blev bygget på en sommer", Aftenposten 4 June 1941, p. 2 Online archive, subscription required. or 160–200 men working for 150 days. The trees were quite homogeneous, none over 60 years old, and had been grown in open woodland, providing the first evidence of large-scale forestry in Iron Age Scandinavia. Traces of ancient agriculture and cooking pits, which predate the mound, lie under it.
A layer of coal with animal bones and cremated human skull fragments from an individual between 20 and 35 years old were found at the base of the mound. No grave goods have been found, only a couple of wooden spades and a bar, presumably from the construction of the mound.
Archaeological investigations 1869–1870 The first dig at the site was conducted by amateur archaeologist Anders Lund Lorange (1847–1888) over two seasons during the years 1869–70. He reached the bottom of the mound but was unsuccessful in finding a burial chamber; he did find the remains of a horse. He left a letter to future archaeologists in a sealed bottle in his second shaft, together with silver coins and two bottles of beer.
Lorange’s Excavation in 1869–70 and the Message in a Bottle, Raknehaugen, Akershus Kulturnett. He believed the mound to be a Viking Age burial.
1939–1940 Archeologist Sigurd Grieg (1894–1973) conducted an extensive investigation of the mound beginning in summer 1939. He found the carbon layer and the bone fragments and believed it to be from the Migration Age, which newer dating techniques later proved correct. There was great interest in the excavation; seats were built for the public to watch. In the first season, the top layer of logs were laid bare and samples taken. Shafts were dug into the mound in two directions, named the 'East Front' and 'West Front' in view of the wartime situation.Grieg’s Excavations During the Second World War, Raknehaugen, Akershus Kulturnett. Before work could resume at the site, Norway had been occupied by Nazi Germany. The German scholar Herbert Jankuhn (1905–1990) sought to place the second season's digging under the direction of the Ahnenerbe,Heiko Steuer, "Herbert Jankuhn und seine Darstellungen zur Germanen- und Wikingerzeit", in Eine hervorragend nationale Wissenschaft: deutsche Prähistoriker zwischen 1900 und 1995: ein Symposium vom 2.-3. Juli 1999 im Rahmen des Sonderforschungsbereiches 541 "Identitäten und Alteritäten, die Funktion von Alterität für die Konstitution und Konstruktion von Identität" an der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg im Breisgau, Teilprojekt C4: "Ethnische Einheiten im frühgeschichtlichen Europa, archäologische Forschung und ihre politische Instrumentalisierung", ed. Heiko Steuer and Dietrich Hackelberg, Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde 29, Berlin: de Gruyter, 2001, , pp. 417–74, p. 433 Heiko Steuer, "Herbert Jankuhn—SS-Karriere und Ur- und Frühgeschichte", in Nationalsozialismus in den Kulturwissenschaften volume 1 Fächer - Milieus - Karrieren, ed. Hartmut Lehmann and Otto Gerhard Oexle, Max-Planck-Institut für Geschichte, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004, , pp. 447–530, p. 479 which would have entitled the German officials to claim any finds, but Anton Wilhelm Brøgger (1884–1951), director of the Museum of National Antiquities at the University of Oslo, obtained the necessary funds from the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage and the second season's digging was supervised by Norwegians and carried out by unemployed young men.
Grieg had promised to restore the mound as it had looked before being opened. Work began in 1946 using wartime traitors and took until 1948 to complete; however, locals protested that the mound remained at least 4 metres lower than it had been. It was reconstructed again in the mid-1960s."Raknehaugen er nå halvveis restaurert, ferdig om ett år", Aftenposten 20 August 1965, p. 3 Online archive, subscription required.
1993 Dagfinn Skre, professor in the Museum of Cultural History at the University of Oslo, reopened one of Grieg's smaller shafts to re-investigate the mound. This investigation confirmed the identification of the traces at its base as remains of prehistoric agriculture and of cooking pits, possibly from ritual meals. Analysis of pollen from the lake showed that the area has been under cultivation since approximately 2000 BCE, intensively and continuously since approximately 700 BCE (the later Bronze Age). After re-examination of Grieg's notes, Skre concluded in 1997 that the mound had contained a cremation burial and had not been merely a cenotaph or thing-place."Nytt forskerlys på Raknehaugen", Aftenposten 12 September 1993, p. 13 Online archive, subscription required.
2016 In 2016, the cremated human bones from the mound were radiocarbon dated to 1290-1220 BCE, showing that they predate the mound construction by about 1800 years, again casting doubt on the function of the mound as a burial.
Recent analysis and theories on the origin of Raknehaugen
A study from 2026 challenges the traditional view of Raknehaugen as a monument to a single individual or as a burial mound. Despite extensive excavations, no unequivocal evidence of a burial has ever been found. Archaeologist Lars Gustavsen instead proposes that the mound was constructed as a collective, ritual response to a catastrophic clay landslide in the area. Using LiDAR data, an extensive landslide scar of approximately 1 km² has been identified just southwest of the mound. Gustavsen argues that the unusual layers of timber within the mound—many of the trees showing signs of having been broken or uprooted rather than cut with an axe—may originate from the actual landslide debris.
The construction of the mound, dated to around AD 552, coincides with a period marked by climatic crises following the volcanic eruptions of 536. The placement of the mound in a transitional zone between two landscape types, right at the edge of the large landslide scar, suggests that the monument functioned as a ritual remedy. The purpose of the massive communal labor effort may have been to restore cosmic and social order in a society traumatized by natural disasters, famine, and population decline. This shifts the focus from the mound as a symbol of elite power to an expression of collective ritual practice in a time of crisis.
Uses since the 19th century Early in the 19th century, the mound was acquired by the regional magistrate, Johan Koren (1758–1825), and his wife, diarist Christiane Koren (1764–1815). In 1808–1809, they built a large hexagonal stone pavilion on the top as a memorial to their son Wilhelm, who died of cholera aged 18.The Story of "Wilhelmsminde”, Raknehaugen, Akershus Kulturnett. It was later used for dances. It was demolished around 1850; before the first excavation of the mound in 1869, the stones had been cleared away and used in building a cowshed.The Myth of King Rakni, Raknehaugen, Akershus Kulturnett. The Korens were members of the circle around the Norwegian Society and the mound appears as an inspiring monument in poetry and other writings of the period.
In the 20th century, the mound was sometimes the site of celebrations of Olsok, Midsummer and Norwegian Constitution Day (17 May), especially in the period of Norway's becoming independent of Sweden. In the first decade of the 21st century it was also for a while the site of ceremonies by the neo-Nazi group Vigrid.Knut Nadheim, "– Ingen vekst i nynazismen", Romerikes Blad 16 September 2008
Association with King Rakni