Six Dynasties poetry () refers to the types or styles of poetry particularly associated with the Six Dynasties era of Chinese history (220–589 CE). This poetry reflects one of the poetry world's more important flowerings, as well as being a unique period in Classical Chinese poetry, which, over this time period, developed a poetry with special emphasis on romantic love, gender roles, and human relationships. The Six Dynasties era is sometimes known as the "Age of Fragmentation", because China as a whole through this period lacked unification as a state, at least for any extended period of time; and, instead, many states rose and fell, often overlapping in existence with other states. Which of the various states and dynasties constituted the "six" dynasties of the Six Dynasties period varies somewhat according to which of the traditional selection criteria are chosen. The Six Dynasties era covers several somewhat overlapping main periods including all of the following: the Three Kingdoms (220–280), Jin dynasty (266–420, in two approximate parts, Western Jin 266–316 and Eastern Jin 317–420), the Sixteen Kingdoms (also known as the "Sixteen States", 304 to 439), and the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589). Sometimes, chronological discrepancies occur in regard to the turbulent political events of the time, from which these traditional historical-era designations derive, together with the somewhat different chronology of poetic (versus political) developments. Thus, neither the lives of the poets nor the trends in their poetry fit gently and neatly together with these period dates. Furthermore, conversions to the Common Era dating system can create further complications. However, regardless of the chronological difficulties, major developments of poetry during the Six Dynasties include formalizing the distinction between the Jian'an era regular yuefu and the shi style poetry, further development of the fu, theoretical work on technique, and the preservation of both Six Dynasties and earlier poetry by collecting and publishing many of the pieces which survive today into various anthologies consisting all or in part of poetry.
Context The Six Dynasties poetic period formed an important link between the folk-ballad (yuefu) style prominent in the poetry of the Han dynasty and the following revival and experimentation with the older forms during the Tang dynasty. Even before the formal end of the Han dynasty the poetic developments typical of that era had begun to yield to the Jian'an style, just as the political power of Han yielded more and more to that of the rising power of various regional hegemons, including Cao Cao and the Cao family. The Cao family was both poetically involved in this process towards the end of the Han era and into the beginning of the subsequent Three Kingdoms era, one of which kingdoms was founded by the Cao family as dynasts. The Cao family's new state, which they called Wei, also was the base area of the Sima clan, which increased in power over time, until one of the Sima family became Emperor Wu of Jin. The early phase of this Jin dynasty, known as Western Jin, provided a unified period for China (266–316), but lacking long-term stability. After this period, the Jin ceded control of the north to various successor states. However, the Jin dynasty as a whole was rather productive of poetry, both original works and collections and criticism. The north–south divide continued as a major feature in the landscape of Chinese poetry through the eventual Sui dynasty re-unification, which shortly gave way to the relatively unified and long term stability of the Tang dynasty, and a whole new poetic era of Tang poetry.
Han poetry
The received legacy of poetry during the Han dynasty includes the classical poetry traditions of the Shi Jing and the proto-Chu Ci. Specific developments of Han poetry included the developments along the lines of these two traditions and the lyrics of folk ballad style as exemplified in the Music Bureau tradition (yuefu).
Jian'an poetry
The development of Chinese poetry does not correspond precisely with the conventional dating of Chinese history by dynasty, despite certain correspondences between the political and poetic trends, with the period of actual transition between dynasties is especially problematic. This is indeed the case in discussing the important poets in the late Han and early Six Dynasties period, including the famous general Cao Cao (155–220), who may be reckoned in this period, although actually beginning his career in the Later/Eastern Han era. That is, the final years at the End of the Han dynasty and during which the Cao family was rising, or risen, to prominence were known as the Jian'an era (196–220). The Jian'an was technically a Han dynasty Chinese era name referring approximately to the years 196–220, during the nominal reign of Emperor Xian of Han, during the End of the Han dynasty. The following major period is known as the Three Kingdoms era, due to the three kingdoms which succeeded the Han dynasty, and proceeded to vie with one another for succession to the Han empire. These three successor states are Wei (also known as Cao Wei, 220–266), Shu, (also known as Shu Han, 221–263) and Wu (also known as Eastern Wu or Sun Wu, 229–280). The jian'an poetry merges with early the early Six Dynasty poetry of the early Three Kingdoms, both in terms of style and in some cases the actual poets, although the plague epidemic of 217–218 killed four of the seven Masters of Jian'an,Watson, 48 and mortality rates were high otherwise, in some cases risk being associated with what someone wrote.
Early Three Kingdoms poetry
The Cao family from 184 to 220 was involved in the chaotic infighting between warlords, across various parts of China. In 220, Cao Pi founded the Wei, or Cao Wei dynasty (220–266 CE). with its capital at Luoyang, in northern China. Its name came from 213, when Cao Cao's feudal holdings were given the name Wei; historians often add the prefix Cao (, from Cao Cao's family name) to distinguish it from the other states in Chinese history also known as Wei. Twenty-four of Cao Cao's poems survive. Cao Cao and his son and successor to power, Cao Pi, were both noted as patrons of literature.Davis, vi Altogether the Cao family, especially Cao Cao's fourth son, Cao Zhi, in association with other poets helped to form the Jian'an style. Cao Zhi is also noted for his association with the dramatically composed and life-saving poem known as "The Quatrain of Seven Steps". Cao Pi wrote an essay Seven Scholars of Jian'an which was influential in the development of the Jian'an school of poetry. One of the poets patronized by Cao Cao and considered to be one of the "Seven Scholars of Jian'an" was Xu Gan (170–217).Davis, vi, who uses the alternative transliteration of Xu Gan's name as Hsü Kan and translates the name of the literary group as 'the Seven Masters of the Chien-an period', and gives the years as 196–219. Another poet in this group was Wang Can (177–217).
End of Cao Wei and founding of Jin The middle part of the Three Kingdoms period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more politically and militarily stable arrangement between three rival states, Wei, Shu, and Wu. The later part of this period was marked by the collapse of the tripartite situation. First, in 263, there was the conquest of Shu by Wei. In the meantime the Cao family had been steadily losing power to the Sima family and their supporters, in a series of various intrigues and in-fighting. The Sima clan was initially subordinate to the Wei dynasty, but through various intrigues and other means the Sima family and their supporters had continued to gain power at the expense of the Cao family and their supporters. In February 266, Sima Yan (later Emperor Wu) forced emperor Cao Huan of Wei to abdicate the throne to him, ending Wei and starting the Jin dynasty (as Emperor Wu). Political it was a perilous time, especially for Wei loyalists, who viewed the rise of the Sima clan as usurpers. Poetically, it was a time conducive to and encouraging the poetry of reclusion, as various poets sought refuge from the perils of the time, often finding it in settings involving nature, poetry, wine, and occasional friends. This often also explicitly or merely by implication tended towards somewhat of a poetry of protest.
Ruan Ji and the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove
As is traditionally depicted, the group wished to escape the intrigues, corruption and stifling atmosphere of court life during the tail end of the politically fraught Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history and into the early period of the newly established Jin dynasty. According to tradition, the members, Liu Ling (221–300), Ruan Ji (210–263), Ruan Xian (fl. 3rd century), Xiang Xiu, Wang Rong (234–305) and Shan Tao (205–283) gathered in a bamboo grove near the house of Xi Kang (aka Ji Kang) (223–262), in Shanyang (now in Henan province) where they enjoyed, and praised in their works, the simple, rustic life. Modern criticism suggests that these gatherings may have been to some extent virtual. Either way, this way of living was contrasted with the life of politics at court. The Seven Sages stressed the enjoyment of ale, personal freedom, spontaneity and a celebration of nature. The various seven sages had their own specialties. However, they shared philosophical discussion, musical production, and drinking.Watson, 74 Burton Watson considers Ruan Ji (whose name he transcribes as Juan Chi) to be the "first important poet" following the Jian'an poetry style.Watson, 69 Ruan Ji helped to define the Six Dynasties poetic development of the themes of reclusion and friendship.Watson, 73 He helped to develop the five-character shi poetry form which had just newly developed with the Jian'an poets, but he moved it away from its initial starkly realistic descriptions of particular scenes which could be right before the poets' eyes towards more generalized, abstract, and symbolic poetic statement. Ruan Ji also developed the nature theme, focusing on "the passing of time and the cycle of the seasons", which lead towards the death of the individual. Ruan Ji was also used to deploy the imagery of birds as symbols of freedom and ability to escape their given situation. Burton Watson further notes the evident lack of the imagery of wine in Ruan's surviving poems. Not that he was unacquainted with it, even recorded as having remained continuously drunk for 2 months to avoid an undesirable marriage which was urged upon him with great political pressure such that he could not overtly refuse.Watson, 70
Other early Jin poets Counted as a Jin dynasty poet and official, Zhang Hua (232–300), was actually born before the creation of the Jin dynasty, however he flourished poetically during it, and died during it (as a result of the War of the Eight Princes). The general and prolific poet Lu Ji used Neo-Taoist cosmology to take literary theory in a new direction with his "Wen fu", or "Essay on Literature" in the fu poetic form.
Jin dynasty The Jin dynasty was divided into an "eastern" and a "western" phase. Really, though, this may be less helpful of a description than saying that in terms of general geography the most apparent geographic difference between the first part and the second part of the Jin dynasty was the loss to the empire of the northern parts above the Huai River. However, historians often focus on the location of the capital on an east–west axis.
Historical background