Carmilla is an 1872 Gothic novella by Irish author Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu. A foundational work of English-language vampire literature, it predated Bram Stoker's Dracula (1897) by 25 years. First published as a serial in The Dark Blue from 1871–72, the novella subsequently appeared in Le Fanu’s short story collection In a Glass Darkly in 1872. Set in 19th-century Styria, it is the story of a young woman who is pursued by the vampire Carmilla. Since its initial publication, Carmilla has often been regarded as one of the most influential vampire stories of all time; its title character is the literary prototype for the female and lesbian vampires in fiction.
The work is narrated by Laura, a young woman living in a secluded Austrian castle, who becomes the object of both affection and predation by the enigmatic Carmilla, leading to a complex and dangerous relationship marked by both romantic desires and vampiric violence. The narrative explores themes of sexual identity, the supernatural, and the tension between innocence and corruption, while maintaining a sense of dread and suspense.
Carmilla defined the vampire fiction genre and Gothic horror in general, and established Le Fanu as a major writer in the genre. The novella directly influenced later horror and mystery writers such as Bram Stoker, M. R. James, Henry James, and others. Due to its popularity, the work has been anthologised, having been adapted extensively for films, operas, video games, Halloween plays, comics, cartoons, radio, and other media since the late 19th century.
Publication Carmilla first appeared as a serial in the literary magazine The Dark Blue in late 1871 and early 1872.The story ran in one issue of 1871 (December, pp. 434–448) and in three issues of 1872 (January, pp. 592–606; February, pp. 701–714; and March, pp. 59–78). Within the same year of the serial's conclusion, the novella was reprinted in Le Fanu's short-story collection In a Glass Darkly (1872) with alterations, the most significant of which being an additional preface re-framing the story as a case file of Le Fanu's fictional occult detective, Doctor Martin Hesselius. Comparing the work of two illustrators of the story, David Henry Friston and Michael Fitzgerald (whose work appears in the original magazine article but not in modern printings of the book) reveals inconsistencies in the characters' depictions. Consequently, confusion has arisen relating the illustrations to the plot.
Carmilla has frequently been republished both in collections and as a standalone work. Due to the intimate relationship described between Laura and Carmilla, the novella has often been shared via private queer publications. It has also been translated into Spanish. Isabella Mazzanti illustrated the book's 2014 edition, which was published by Editions Soleil and translated by Gaid Girard.
The 2019 edition of Carmilla was edited and introduced by Carmen Maria Machado. Her introduction, a pastiche mirroring Le Fanu's 1872 "Hesselius" prologue, adds an additional (fictional) framing story to the narrative by introducing the scholarship of a non-existent professor called Dr. Jane Leight. "Leight," according to Machado, claims that the story in Carmilla copied and censored the story of a real romance between two women. Machado claims the story is based on under-studied letters from Veronika Hausle to Pierre Fontenot, purportedly detailing a romance between Hausle and Marcia Marén. The edition includes footnotes and limited textual changes by Machado, as well as illustrations by Robert Kraiza. These changes both modernize some of Le Fanu's dialogue and humanize Carmilla, aligning with an artistic tradition that reclaims queer villains. Major themes of the work include questioning authority, reading for truth in stories altered by heterosexism, and uncovering silenced voices.
Plot summary The story is presented as part of the casebook of Dr. Hesselius, which is being assembled by an unnamed assistant "for the laity."
A woman named Laura narrates, beginning with her childhood in a "picturesque and solitary" castle amid an extensive forest in Styria, where she lives with her father, a wealthy English widower retired from service to the Austrian Empire. Due to the remoteness of their "schloss," and because she is an only child, Laura has only her father, her governesses, and servants for company. She recounts that, when she was six, she had a vision of a beautiful visitor in her bedchamber. She recalls being punctured in her breast, although no wound was found. All the household assure Laura that it was just a dream, and there is no subsequent vision or visitation, but Laura insists that it was real.
Twelve years later, Laura's father tells her of a letter from his friend, General Spielsdorf. The General was supposed to visit them with his niece, Bertha Rheinfeldt, but she died under mysterious circumstances. The General promises to discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later.
Laura, saddened by the loss of a potential friend, longs for a companion. A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly brings Carmilla, a girl of Laura's age, into the family's care. Though Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, her mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent and cannot be delayed. On Laura's urging, her father proposes that the woman leave Carmilla in his care until she can return for her in three months. The woman agrees, but warns that the "nervous, but quite sane" Carmilla will not disclose any information whatsoever about her family, her past, or herself. Both girls instantly recognise each other from the "dream" they both had when they were young.
Carmilla and Laura grow to be close, but Carmilla's odd behaviors unsettle Laura. On the one hand, she refuses to tell Laura anything about herself, despite Laura's burning curiosity. On the other, she sometimes makes romantic advances towards Laura which cause conflicted feelings of attraction and revulsion. In addition to this, she never joins the household in its prayers, she sleeps much of the day, she never eats, and she seems to sleepwalk outside at night.
When a shipment of restored heirloom paintings arrives, Laura finds a portrait of her ancestor Mircalla Karnstein, Countess Karnstein, dated 1698. The portrait resembles Carmilla exactly, down to the mole on her neck. Carmilla suggests that she, too, is descended from the Karnsteins, though the family died out centuries before.
During Carmilla's stay, Laura has nightmares of a large, cat-like beast entering her room. The beast springs onto the bed and Laura feels something like two needles, an inch or two apart, darting deep into her breast. The beast then takes the form of a female figure and disappears through the door without opening it. In another nightmare, Laura hears a voice say, "Your mother warns you to beware of the assassin," and a light reveals Carmilla standing at the foot of her bed, her nightdress drenched in blood. After a frantic search of the castle and the grounds, Laura discovers Carmilla in her bedroom as if nothing has happened. Laura's father suggests that she was sleepwalking; Carmilla admits that she sleepwalked as a child.
Laura's health declines, and her father has a doctor examine her. He finds a small, blue spot, an inch or two below her collar, where the creature in her dream bit her, and speaks privately with her father, only asking that Laura never be unattended. Laura asks what is wrong with her, but her father reassures her that she needn't worry.
The group plans a day trip to the ruined village of Karnstein, three miles distant. Laura and her father depart first, leaving a message behind asking Carmilla and a governess to follow once the perpetually late-sleeping Carmilla awakes. En route to Karnstein, Laura and her father encounter Spielsdorf, who tells them his story.
At a costume ball, Spielsdorf and Bertha had met a beautiful young woman named "Millarca" and her enigmatic mother. The mother convinced Spielsdorf that she was an old friend of his and asked that Millarca be allowed to stay with them for three weeks while she attended to a secret matter of great importance. Bertha was immediately taken with Millarca.
Bertha fell mysteriously ill, suffering the same symptoms as Laura. After consulting with a specially ordered priestly doctor, Spielsdorf realised that Bertha was being visited by a vampire. He hid with a sword and waited until a large, black creature crawled onto Bertha's bed and spread itself onto her throat. He leapt from his hiding place and attacked the creature, which had then taken the form of Millarca. She fled through the locked door, unharmed. Bertha died before the morning dawned.
Upon arriving at Karnstein, Spielsdorf asks a woodsman where he can find the tomb of Mircalla Karnstein. The woodman says the tomb was relocated long ago by a Moravian nobleman who vanquished the vampires haunting the region.
While Spielsdorf and Laura are alone in the ruined chapel, Carmilla appears. Spielsdorf attacks her with an axe. Carmilla disarms Spielsdorf and disappears. Spielsdorf explains that Carmilla is also Millarca, both anagrams for the original name of the vampire Mircalla, Countess Karnstein.
The party is joined by Baron Vordenburg, the descendant of the hero who rid the area of vampires. Vordenburg, an authority on vampires, has discovered that his ancestor was romantically involved with Mircalla before she died. Using his forefather's notes, he locates Mircalla's hidden tomb. An imperial commission exhumes the body of Mircalla. Immersed in blood, it seems to be breathing faintly, its heart beating, its eyes open. A stake is driven through its heart, and it gives a corresponding shriek; then, the head is struck off. The body and head are burned to ashes, which are thrown into a river.
Afterwards, Laura's father takes his daughter on a year-long tour through Italy to regain her health and recover from the trauma, but she never fully does.
Motifs
Carmilla exhibits the primary characteristics of Gothic fiction. It includes a supernatural figure, a dark setting of an old castle, a mysterious atmosphere, and ominous or superstitious elements. pp. 32-34.
In the novella, Le Fanu opposes the Victorian view of women as merely useful possessions of men, relying on men and needing their constant guardianship. The male characters of the story, such as Laura's father and General Spielsdorf, are exposed as being the opposite of the putative Victorian males—helpless and unproductive. pp. 203-204. The nameless father reaches an agreement with Carmilla's mother, whereas Spielsdorf cannot control the fate of his niece, Bertha. Both of these scenes portray women as equal, if not superior to men. pp. 613-615. This female empowerment is even more clear if we consider Carmilla's vampiric predecessors and their relationship with their prey.Signorotti, p. 609. Carmilla is the opposite of those male vampires—she is actually involved with her victims both emotionally and (theoretically) sexually. Moreover, she is able to exceed even more limitations by dominating death. In the end, her immortality is suggested to be sustained by the river where her ashes had been scattered. pp. 34-38.
Le Fanu also departs from the negative idea of female parasitism and lesbianism by depicting a mutual and irresistible connection between Carmilla and Laura.Signorotti, pp. 610-611. The latter, along with other female characters, becomes a symbol of all Victorian women—restrained and judged for their emotional reflexes. The ambiguity of Laura's speech and behaviour reveals her struggles with being fully expressive of her concerns and desires.Veeder, pp. 198-200.