Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852), was one of the leading British military and political figures of the 19th century. Often referred to solely as "The Duke of Wellington", he led a successful military career in the Indian subcontinent during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–99) and the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805), and in Europe during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815).
Starting his career in 1787 as a commissioned officer in the infantry, before seeing his first action in the Flanders campaign, Wellesley rose in rank by purchasing his first four commissions, as was common practice in the British Army for wealthy officers.Holmes, pp. 17–19, 21. His continued rise in status and fame thereafter came about as the result of his tactical ability and successes as an army commander. Between 1794 and 1815, Wellesley participated in a number of military campaigns where he achieved tactical, strategic, and decisive victories in India and across Europe.Morgan, pp. 95–116. See: Timeline of Wellington & British Campaigns.
Wellesley faced and defeated many of Napoleon's marshals as the commander in chief of the Anglo-Portuguese Army during the Peninsular War, but his best known battle was at Waterloo in 1815 where he led an Anglo-Allied force to a decisive victory over Napoleon. It was to be the last battle for both commanders, and brought the Napoleonic Wars to a close. In old age he was celebrated as an outstanding public servant—"the Great Duke." Posthumous reappraisal proved harsher, depicting him as an overcautious general. Today he is widely recognized for his military genius and for his character as a principled, public-spirited statesman.
Military career
There is speculation by historians and biographers about how many battles Wellington actually participated in during his career. Military historian Ian Fletcher identifies twenty-four major battles and sieges involving the British Army between 1808 and 1815 with Wellington in command of seventeen.Fletcher (2005), pp. 17–117. Military historian Mark Adkin commented that "Wellington had fought in some twenty-four battles and sieges prior to Waterloo".Adkin, p. 92. Although this is easily contested, the precise number of battles may never be known. It can be established from records, dispatches and reports dating back to the events that he was present in at least fifty separate military actions, including an assortment of meeting engagements, pitched battles, sieges, skirmishes and minor engagements, throughout his career. He also ordered countless other remote engagements mostly whilst serving in the Napoleonic Wars, during which Britain played a major role in the Coalition's struggle against Napoleon, between 1805 and 1815.Smith, pp. 201–560.
Commissions and promotions Wellesley received his first commission by purchase. He was gazetted ensign on 7 March 1787, in the 73rd (Highland) Regiment of Foot, and became an aide-de-camp in October.Holmes, p. 21. He purchased his commission to lieutenant on 25 December 1787, in the 76th Regiment. As a junior officer he transferred to the 41st Regiment soon after to avoid duty in the East Indies, and in June 1789 transferred again, to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Light Dragoons.Holmes, p. 22. He obtained his commission as captain on 30 June 1791, in the 58th (Rutlandshire) Regiment, having served the regulation minimum of three years,Holmes, p. 18, 24. and again to major on 30 April 1793, in the 33rd (First Yorkshire West Riding) Regiment, having served six years.Holmes, p. 18, 25. He purchased his final commission to lieutenant-colonel on 30 September 1793,Holmes, p. 28. at the age of 24.Savoury & Isles, p. 4. From there on further promotion could only be attained through seniority, per Army Regulations.Holmes, p. 19.
In September 1794, Wellesley experienced his first taste of warfare, against the French at the Battle of Boxtel with the 33rd.Holmes, p. 30. His promotion to colonel, on 3 May 1796, came by seniority, and in June he was sent with the 33rd to India.Holmes, p. 34. In 1799 he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, commanding three victorious actions with the East India Company army.
In 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with suppressing an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, a former Mysorean soldier who had served under Tipu Sultan.Weller, p. 88 After the fall of Seringapatam, Waugh had turned to brigandage, having raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysorean soldiers, and raided villages along the Maratha–Mysore border. Waugh had also captured some British-held outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to Company rule in India.Davies, p. 22. This drew the attention of the East India Company,Weller, pp. 94–96. and Wellesley was given independent command of a combined British Army and East India Company force.Weller, p. 97. In June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, Wellesley moved against Waugh, having learned that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat.Davies, pp. 33, 38. Throughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with "trifling loss".Wellesley & Gurwood (ed), Vol. I, pp. 181, 190. Waugh continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance.Weller, p. 99. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conagul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and sepoy cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed in action during the charge, and his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory Wellesley's campaign was concluded, as British authority had been restored.Davies, pp. 37–38.
After winning the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, and serving as governor of Seringapatam and Mysore, Wellesley was promoted to major-general on 29 April 1802, although he did not receive the news until September.Holmes, p. 69. Whilst in India he wrote of his regiment "I have commanded them for nearly ten years during which I have scarcely been away from them and I have always found them to be the quietest and best behaved body of men in the army."Savoury & Isles, p. 5.
Wellesley gained further success in India during the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–05, winning the battles of Assaye and Argaon and in 1806 Wellesley succeeded Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis as Colonel of the 33rd, which he held until 1813. By 1807, Napoleon's attempt to prevent continental Europe from trading with Britain had resulted in all but Sweden, Denmark-Norway and Portugal closing their ports. In June 1807, Napoleon pressured Denmark further, resulting in the British naval bombardment of Copenhagen and seizure of the Danish fleet to prevent it from falling into French hands.Rothenberg, pp. 114–115. Wellesley's brief role against Danish land forces at the Battle of Køge helped secure Denmark. Wellesley later disapproved of the bombardment, saying "we might have taken the capital with greater ease."Holmes, pp. 100–101.
He was promoted to lieutenant-general on 25 April 1808,Holmes, p. 102. and in June was given command of 9,000 men set to invade Spanish America.Longford, p. 138. But in 1807, Napoleon had invaded Portugal, via Spain, intent on preventing its continued trade with Britain and subsequently replaced the Spanish royal family with his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte, in May 1808.Rothenberg, pp. 113–114. In Madrid, the people attempted a rebellion against the French occupation which spread across Spain resulting in mass executions in reprisal, leading both the Portuguese and Spanish juntas (local administrations) to call on British support.Holmes, pp. 105–106.Hibbert, pp. 67–68.
On 31 July 1811, Wellesley was promoted to general, although it only applied in the Peninsula.Holmes, p. 189. His final promotion to field marshal came on 21 June 1813, following his success at the Battle of Vitoria which had broken the remaining French hold in Spain.Holmes, p. 187. Wellington was awarded with a baton – partially designed by the Prince Regent himself – the first of its kind in the British Army.
Allied commander
In August 1808, Wellesley entered the Peninsular War, landing at Mondego Bay, north of Lisbon, with 13,000–15,000 men.Holmes, pp. 112–121.Hibbert, p. 70. Just three weeks after landing, Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Vimeiro. Aware of his weak position, French général de division (divisional general) Jean-Andoche Junot called for an armistice and negotiations began which lead to the Convention of Cintra and his army's withdrawal from Portugal.Holmes, pp. 120–121.
Wellesley returned to England, arriving on 4 October, but his victory at Vimeiro was overshadowed because of the controversial terms of the Convention of Cintra, a treaty that he had signed which arranged for French troops to be evacuated back to France on Royal Navy vessels, rather than kept as prisoners, along with all their equipment, weapons and personal possessions, which included anything they might have plundered from Portugal since its occupation in 1807.Holmes, p. 121. The convention was subject to ridicule by the newspapers,Holmes, pp. 122–123. as were the three officers who had signed it, namely Wellesley and two superior generals: Sir Harry Burrard and Sir Hew Dalrymple. A public inquiry was held in November to determine their roles in the convention. Wellesley gave evidence stating that he and Burrard had played no part in negotiating terms with the French generals, that Dalrymple had discussed the contents of the treaty alone. He had approved of a French evacuation but felt the terms were too generous; though he considered the treaty "an extraordinary paper" his signature was a formality. A Board of General Officers voted 4:3 in favour of the convention and concluded proceedings on 22 December.Hibbert, pp. 78–79. Furthermore, they commended Wellesley's role at Vimeiro and he later received the thanks of Parliament for his victory.Holmes, p. 124.
When the head of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, was killed in the Battle of Corunna in January 1809,Holmes, p. 125. the British Army having been driven from the Peninsula in disarray,Fletcher (2005), p. 30. Wellesley sent the Secretary of State for War a memo insisting that a force of no less than 30,000 British troops should be sent to defend and rebuild Portugal's military strength.Holmes, pp. 125–126. His proposal was approved and he re-embarked to Lisbon on 14 April 1809, having been appointed to head of all British forces in Portugal on 6 AprilHolmes, pp. 129–130. – a motion supported by the government and King George III, as Wellesley did not hold seniority.
Due to a second invasion of Portugal by the French he remained to continue the Peninsular War for a further five years, engaging the French armies across Portugal, Spain, and north into France until Napoleon's abdication in 1814.Holmes, pp. 193–194.