For nearly 250 years, Berber kings of the 'House of Masinissa' ruled in Numidia in modern day Algeria, and later in adjacent regions, first as sovereigns allied with Rome and then eventually as Roman clients. This period commenced by the Roman Army, assisted by Berber cavalry led by Masinissa at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, and it lasted until the year 40 AD, during the reign of the Roman Emperor Gaius, also known as Caligula (37–41 AD).
During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) Rome entered into an alliance with Masinissa, the son of a Berber tribal leader. Masinissa had been driven out of his ancestral realm by a Carthage-backed Berber rival. Following the Roman victory at Zama, Masinissa (r. 202–148 BC) was celebrated as a "friend of the Roman people". He became king of Numidia and ruled for over fifty years. For seven generations his line of kings continued its relationship with an increasingly powerful Roman state.
During this era, the Berbers ruled over many cities as well as extensive land, and the peoples under their governance prospered. Municipal and civic affairs were organized using a combination of Punic and Berber political traditions. One descendant king, a grandson of Masinissa, Jugurtha (r. 118–105 BC), successfully attacked his cousin kings, who were also allies of Rome, and in the course of a long struggle he became an enemy of Rome. In the Roman civil wars after the fall of the Roman Republic (44 BC), Berber kings were courted by the contending political factions for their military support. Berber kings continued to reign, but had become merely clients of Imperial Rome.
One such Berber king married the daughter of Cleopatra of Egypt. He and his son, the last two Berber kings (reigns: 25 BC–40 AD), were not accepted by many of their Berber subjects. During this period, Roman settlers were increasingly taking the traditional pasture lands of transhumant Berber tribes for their own use as farms. The commoner Tacfarinas raised a revolt in defense of Berber land rights and became a great tribal chief as a result of his insurgency (17-24 AD) against Rome.For the geography of Algeria and other background, see History of Algeria.For reference sources, see the footnoted sections that follow.
Rome and the Berber kings In the third and final Punic War (149–146 BC), Roman forces lay siege to the great city of Carthage. When it fell to the Romans the great city had become mostly a burning ruin, and the long rivalry between the two major powers of the western Mediterranean came to an end. Rome annexed Carthage and its immediate vicinity, but the surrounding territories remained in Berber hands, specifically in those of King Masinissa, an ally of Rome. Subsequent independent Berber kings were courted by Rome.
Previously, Carthage had enjoyed fabled wealth through commerce.Theodor Mommsen writes of the ancient city-state: "From a financial point of view, Carthage held in every respect the first place among the states of antiquity.... Polybius calls it the wealthiest city in the world." Romische Geschicht (Leipzig 1854–1856) at Bk. III, Ch. I, [Par. 22]; translated as The History of Rome (London 1864; reprint London: Dent 1911) at II: 17–18. Accordingly, the Punic city-state had once exerted great economic influence on the surrounding Berber polities and peoples. Yet Carthage directly ruled only an ample territory adjacent to the city and its developed network of trading posts. These Punic enclaves were situated at short intervals along the Mediterranean coast of Africa from Tripolitania westward.Carthage had also directly ruled in various Mediterranean islands and in lands of Hispania, but these were already lost as a result of the Second Punic War. Although within a commercial sphere dominated by Carthage, most Berbers lived in territories outside its direct political control.
Comparatively little is known of the most ancient Berber peoples since the few surviving writings from Carthage shed little light on this history, although surviving inscriptions and artifacts do offer some clues and hints. Starting with the Punic Wars, Berbers are, however, mentioned in surviving works of classical Greek and Roman authors and these sources provide some details in the descriptions of Berber events.Cf. Abdallah Lauroui, in his L'Histoire du Maghreb: Un essai de synthèse (Paris: Librairie François Maspero 1970), translated as The History of the Maghreb. An Interpretive Essay (Princeton University 1977), 30.
During the three Punic Wars, Rome directly entered into permanent relations with the Berber people. In the third war's aftermath, however, Rome turned its attention to the eastern Mediterranean. The fall of the Roman Republic led to the Roman civil wars, whose intermittent military actions and political strife indirectly amplified the significance of the Berber kings. Amid the oscillating demands and shifting fortunes, Berber alliances were sought by rival Roman factions. Berber relations with Rome became multivalent and fluid, characterized variously as a working alliance, functional ambivalence, partisan hostility, veiled maneuvering, and fruitful intercourse. Nevertheless, during these years of Roman civil conflict the political status of the Berber kings continued to erode. From being independent sovereign (Masinissa), the kings had become long-term allies; later their political alliance was required, and eventually they were reduced to Roman clients.Berber leaders are called "princes". E.g., Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970; Princeton Univ. 1977), 30.
When the last of these civil wars came to an end and the long reign of Augustus (31 BC to 14 AD) commenced, Roman-Berber relations were redefined. Berber kings reigned alongside a triumphant Roman dominion which spanned the entire Mediterranean, and later in 40 AD the last allied Berber kingdom was absorbed by the Empire. Thereafter, probably most Berber peoples lived within the political boundaries of the Roman world.Cf. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971), 30–36.
Nature of the Berber regimes Circa 220 BC, three large Berber kingdoms had arisen. Markedly influenced by Punic civilization, they had nonetheless endured as separate Berber entities, their culture surviving throughout the long reign of Carthage. West to east these kingdoms were: (1) the Mauri (in modern Morocco) under king Baga; (2) the Masaesyli (in northern Algeria) under Syphax, who then controlled two capitals: to the west Siga (near modern Oran) and to the east Cirta (modern Constantine); and (3) the Massyli (south of Cirta, west and south of nearby Carthage), ruled by Gala [Gaia] (the father of Masinissa). Following the Second Punic War, Massyli and eastern Masaesyli were joined to become Numidia, located in historic Tunisia. Here Masinissa ruled and reigned. Both Rome and the Hellenic states gave Masinissa the honors befitting an admired king.Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1996), 24–27 (kingdoms).
Hitherto, the African kingdoms had been temporary tribal coalitions; Masinissa did not wish to be a tribal chieftain, but a true king, with settled subjects, with a proper army and a fleet financed by taxes rather than by irregular and erratic tribal contributions.Susan Raven, Rome in Africa (London: Evans Brothers 1969; new ed., London: Longman 1984), 47.
Many prosperous cities were governed by the Berbers. A bilingual (Punic and Berber) urban inscription has been found that concerns 2nd-century-BC Numidia. It was excavated from the ancient city of Thugga (modern Dougga, Tunisia), located about 100 kilometers inland from Carthage. The inscription indicates a complex city administration, with the Berber title GLD (cognate to modern Berber Agellid, king or paramount tribal chief) designating the ruling municipal officer. This top position apparently rotated among the selected members of the leading Berber families. Since the Numidian titles of the offices mentioned (GLD, MSSKWI, GZBI, GLDGIML) were not translated into Punic but left in a Berber language, it suggests an indigenous development.Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1996), 37–40 (Berber urban offices). These municipal titles were written using letters that represent only the consonant sounds, i.e., without indicating the vowel sounds, a characteristic also of ancient Phoenician and other Semitic scripts, such as Aramaic.Subsequently, Hebrew and Arabic indicate the vowel sounds by the addition of "diacritical points" usually placed above the letters. Isaac Taylor, The Alphabet. An account of the origin and development of letters (London 1883, reprint Madras 1991) at I: 159–161.
Masinissa and Syphax The Berber king Masinissa (c. 240–148 BC)Livy (59-A.D.17), Ab urbe condita at XXIV, 48; Books XXI-XXX translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt, edited by Betty Radice, as The War with Hannibal (Penguin 1965, 1972) at 290. Here the modern edition's footnote makes Masinissa ten years older than his age in Livy's text, giving him a birth date circa 240. was both well known and well regarded in Rome for many decades. He was the first and the most important of the early Berber leaders to establish major relations with the Roman state. His family became, what may be considered, the royal family of Numidia and its vicinity for eight generations: the House of Masinissa.Masinissa is discussed by Mouloud Gaid in his Aguellids et Romains en Berberie (Alger: Sned 1962; 2d ed. Alger: Opu 1985). Gaid (at 24) provides a diagram including the Kings of Numidia, which may also be called the "House of Masinissa":
Kings of Numidia (with dates of reign) {relation (to Masinissa by default)}, and events [sources] Zilassan {grandfather}, not yet King of Numidia, but a local Sufete [Brett & Fentress (1996), 39] Gaï (died 208) {father}, King of Numidia [Brett & Fentress (1996), 39] Ousalces (died 207) {uncle (brother to Gaï)}, [Brett & Fentress (1996), 289, n70 (text on p. 48)] Capusca (r. 207–207) {cousin (son of Ousalces)}, [Brett & Fentress (1996), 289, n70 (text on p. 48)] Lacumaces (r. 207–202) {cousin}, under regency of Mazaetullus, rival to Gaï (mostly ruled by his rival Syphax) [Livy, XXIX, 29–32] Masinissa (r. 202–148), King of Massyli & Masaesyli (see Syphax below) [Ilevbare, Carthage, Rome & the Berbers (1980), 175] Micipsa (r. 148–118) {son}, [Sallust, 5-6] Gulussa (r. 148–c.140) {son}, died of disease [Sallust, 5–6] Mastanabel (r. 148–c.140) {son}, died of disease [Sallust, 5–6] (Misagènes, Masgaba, Stembanos {other sons}; Asdrubal {daughter}) Hasdrubal the Boeotarch (c. 149) {grandson}, commander of Carthage during Roman siege [Scullard (1935, 1991), 311] Adherbal (r. 118–112) {grandson (by Micipsa)}, killed at Cirta by Jugurtha [Sallust, 5–6, & 25] Hiempsal I (r. 118–116) {grandson (by Micipsa)}, killed at Thirmida by Jugurtha [Sallust, 5–6, & 13] Jugurtha (r. 118–105) {illegitimate grandson (by Mastanabel)}, [Sallust, 5–6] Massiva (died 110) {grandson (by Gulussa)}, killed at Rome by Jugurtha, as potential rival [Sallust, 35] Gauda (r. 105) = {grandson (by Mastanabal, half-brother to Jugurtha)} [Sallust, 65] Oxynta Hiempsal II (r. 106–60) {great-grandson (by Gauda via Mastanabal)}, deposed by Hiarbas (82-80), restored by Pompey (80) [Brett & Fentress (1996), 43] [Ilevbare (1980), 175] Juba I (r. 60–46) {great-grandson (by Hiempsal II)}, defeated in Roman civil war at Battle of Thapsus in 46, Numidia in 46 being annexed to Rome by Julius Caesar [B&F (1996), 43] Kings of Western Massyli and Masaesyli ("western Numidia") Syphax (deposed 203), circa 205 had annexed Massyli [Ilevbare (1980), 175] (see above: Masinissa; Micipsa, Gulussa, Mastanabel; Adherbal, Hiempsal, Jugurtha) Harba (r. 108–81) Mastenisa (r. 81–48) Arabion (r. 80–40) Kings of Mauretania (west of Numidia) Baga (during Second Punic War (218–201)) {evidently not related to Masinissa} [Ilevbare, Carthage, Rome & the Berbers (1980), 175]