("calm," "serenity," "tranquility of awareness") and () are two qualities of the mind developed in tandem in Buddhist practice.

In the Pāli Canon and the these qualities are not specific practices, but elements of "a single path," and are "fulfilled" with the development () of mindfulness () and meditation () and other path-factors. While has a central role in the Buddhist path, is rarely mentioned separately, but is usually described along with .

The and the commentaries describe and as two separate techniques, taking to mean concentration-meditation, and as a practice to gain insight. In the tradition, is a practice that seeks "insight into the true nature of reality", which is defined as ("impermanence"), ("suffering, unsatisfactoriness"), and ("non-self"): the three marks of existence. In the Mahayana traditions is defined as insight into ("emptiness") and Buddha-nature.

In modern , the relation between and is a matter of dispute. Meditation-practice was reinvented in the tradition in the 18th–20th centuries, based on contemporary readings of the , the , and other texts, centering on and "dry insight" and downplaying . became of central importance in the 20th century Vipassanā movement which favors over .

Some critics point out that both are necessary elements of the Buddhist training, while other critics argue that is not a single-pointed concentration exercise.

Terminology

Samatha The Sanskrit word can be translated as "tranquility"; "tranquility of the mind"; "tranquillity of awareness"; "serenity"; "calm"; "meditative calm"; or "quietude of the heart."

The Tibetan term for is (; ). The semantic field of Sanskrit and Tibetan is "pacification", "the slowing or cooling down", "rest." The semantic field of Tibetan is "to abide or remain" which is assumed to be the meaning of the final syllable of the Sanskrit, . According to Jamgon Kongtrul, the terms refer to "peace" and "pacification" of the mind and the thoughts.

is a Pali word derived from the prefix "" and the verbal root "": "special," "super"; "in a special way," "into, through"; "clear." "seeing"; "seeing," "perceiving"; "free from preconception."

The literal meaning is "super-seeing," but is often translated as "insight" or "clear-seeing." Henepola Gunaratana defines as "[l]ooking into something with clarity and precision, seeing each component as distinct and separate, and piercing all the way through so as to perceive the most fundamental reality of that thing." According to Mitchell Ginsberg, is "[i]nsight into how things are, not how we thought them to be."

Associated with is the Pāli term (cognate to Sanskrit: ) "perceptible to the senses", literally "before the eyes", which refers to direct experiential perception. Thus, the type of seeing denoted by is that of direct perception, as opposed to knowledge derived from reasoning or argument.

In Tibetan, is (). means "higher", "superior", "greater"; is "view, to see". So together, may be rendered into English as "superior seeing", "great vision", or "supreme wisdom". This may be interpreted as a "superior manner of seeing", and also as "seeing that which is the essential nature". Its nature is a lucidity—a clarity of mind.

Origins and development

Early Buddhism

According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ", , and were all part of a single path." According to Keren Arbel, and are not specific practices, but qualities of the mind that a practitioner fulfills as they develop the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, including ("mindfulness") and ("meditation"). In the the term "" is hardly mentioned, while those texts frequently mention as the meditative practice to be undertaken. As Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes,

According to Vetter and Bronkhorst, constituted the original "liberating practice" of the Buddha. Vetter further argues that the Noble Eightfold Path constitutes a collection of practices that prepare one, and lead up to, the practice of . Vetter and Bronkhorst further note that is not limited to single-pointed concentration, which seems to be described in the first , but develops into equanimity and mindfulness, "born from ." Wynne notes that one is then no longer absorbed in concentration, but is mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to them, "directing states of meditative absorption towards the mindful awareness of objects."

A number of mention and as mental qualities that are to be developed in tandem. In SN 43.2, the Buddha states: "And what, , is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight..."Bodhi (2000), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, pp. 1372–73. In SN 35.245, the Kimsuka Tree Sutta, the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of (Pāli; Skt.: ) via the noble eightfold path:

Ven. Ānanda reports that people attain ship in one of four ways:

Disjunction of and Buddhaghosa, in his influential scholastic treatise Visuddhimagga, states that is induced by , and then is reflected upon with mindfulness, becoming the object of , with the reflector realizing that is marked by the three characteristics. One who uses this method is referred to as a "tranquility worker" (Pāḷi: ). However, modern Buddhist teachers such as Henepola Gunaratana state that there is virtually no evidence of this method in the Pāḷi . A few describe a method of "bare insight", or "dry insight" where only is practiced, examining ordinary physical and mental phenomena to discern the three marks. Gombrich and Brooks argue that the distinction as two separate paths originates in the earliest interpretations of the Sutta Pitaka, not in the themselves.

According to Richard Gombrich, a development took place in early Buddhism resulting in a change in doctrine that considered to be an alternative means to awakening, alongside the practice of meditation. The contain traces of ancient debates between and schools concerning the interpretation of the teachings and the development of insight. Out of these debates developed the idea that bare insight suffices to reach liberation, by discerning the three marks (qualities) of (human) existence (), namely (suffering), (non-self), and (impermanence). Thanissaro Bikkhu also argues that and have a "unified role," whereas "[t]he Abhidhamma and the Commentaries, by contrast, state that and are two distinct meditation paths."

Gunaratana notes that "[t]he classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and insight is the Visuddhimagga." Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the Thai Forest Tradition) writes that

and the movement

By the tenth century meditation was no longer practiced in the Theravada tradition, due to the belief that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming of the future Buddha, Maitreya. It was reinvented in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by Medawi (1728–1816), leading to the rise of the Vipassanā movement in the 20th century, reinventing meditation, developing simplified meditation techniques (based on the Satipatthana sutta, the Ānāpānasati Sutta, the Visuddhimagga, and other texts), and emphasizing and bare insight. In this approach, is regarded as a preparation for , pacifying the mind and strengthening concentration, so that insight into impermanence can arise, which leads to liberation. Ultimately, these techniques aim at stream entry, which safeguards future development towards full awakening, despite the degenerated age we live in.

According to the tradition, refers to techniques that help to calm the mind. is thought to be developed by , interpreted by the commentatorial tradition as concentration-meditation, the ability to rest the attention on a single object of perception. One of the principal techniques for this purpose is mindfulness of breathing (Pāḷi: ). It is commonly interpreted that should necessarily be practiced as a prelude to and in conjunction with wisdom practices.

Objects of -meditation Some meditation practices, such as contemplation of a object, favor the development of ; others, such as contemplation of the aggregates, are conducive to the development of ; while others, such as mindfulness of breathing, are classically used for developing both mental qualities. Nyanaponika (1996), p. 108.

The Visuddhimagga (5th century CE) mentions forty objects of meditation. Mindfulness () of breathing (: ; S. ) is the most common practice (though this term is also used for meditation). can include other practices as well.

Signs and stages of joy in -meditation Buddhism describes the development of in terms of three successive mental images or 'signs' () and five stages of joy (). According to the -tradition, , a feeling of joy, gladness or rapture, arises from the abandonment of the five hindrances in favor of concentration on a single object. These stages are outlined by the exegete Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga (also in Atthasālinī) and the earlier Upatissa (author of the Vimuttimagga). Following the establishment of access concentration (), one can enter the four , powerful states of joyful absorption in which the entire body is pervaded with .

Variations in In the tradition various understandings of exist: In Sri Lanka includes all those meditations that are directed at static objects. In Burma, comprises all concentration practices aimed at calming the mind. The Thai Forest tradition deriving from Ajahn Mun and popularized by Ajahn Chah stresses the inseparability of and , and the essential necessity of both practices.

In modern , liberation is thought to be attained by insight into the transitory nature of phenomena. This is accomplished by establishing (mindfulness) and through the practice of (mindfulness of breathing), using mindfulness for observing the impermanence in the bodily and mental changes, to gain insight (P: , S: ; P: , S: ) into the true nature of phenomena.

movement

The term is often conflated with the Movement, which popularised new teachings and practice. It started in the 1950s in Burma, but has gained wide renown mainly through American Buddhist teachers such as Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Gil Fronsdal, Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield. The movement has a wide appeal due to being inclusive of different Buddhist and non-buddhist wisdom, poetry as well as science. It has together with the modern American Zen tradition served as one of the main inspirations for the "mindfulness movement" as developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn and others. The Movement, also known as the Insight Meditation Movement, is rooted in Buddhism and the revival of meditation techniques, especially the "New Burmese Method", the Thai Forest Tradition, and modern influences on the traditions of Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, and Thailand.

In the Movement, the emphasis is on the Satipatthana Sutta and the use of mindfulness to gain insight into the impermanence of the self. It argues that the development of strong can be disadvantageous, a stance for which the Vipassana Movement has been criticised, especially in Sri Lanka. The "New Burmese Method" was developed by U Nārada (1868–1955), and popularised by Mahasi Sayadaw (1904–1982) and Nyanaponika Thera (1901–1994). Other influential Burmese proponents include Ledi Sayadaw and Mogok Sayadaw as well as Mother Sayamagyi and S. N. Goenka, who were both students of Sayagyi U Ba Khin. Influential Thai teachers include Ajahn Chah and Buddhadasa. A well-known Indian teacher is Dipa Ma.

Stages of practice Practice begins with the preparatory stage, the practice of (virtue): giving up worldly thoughts and desires. Jeff Wilson notes that morality is a quintessential element of Buddhist practice, and is also emphasized by the first generation of post-war western teachers. However, in the contemporary mindfulness movement, morality as an element of practice has been mostly discarded, "mystifying" the origins of mindfulness.