Peter ( ) (fl. 860s–870s) was a Bulgarian noble and relative of "knyaz" (khan) Boris I (r. 852–889) who was in charge of diplomatic missions during the Christianization of Bulgaria. His position in the Bulgarian administrative hierarchy is unknown but it has been suggested that he had the title kavhan, i. e. the second person in the state after the monarch.
Historical background
When Boris I assumed the throne of Bulgaria in 852, the country was still pagan, with the ruling Bulgar elite being Tengriists while the Slavic population practised its own religion. Christianity was already widespread in Bulgaria as the country was established on former territories of the Byzantine Empire, and seems to have been influential. Even one of the sons of Khan Omurtag (r. 814–831), Enravota, converted to Christianity.Andreev, p. 67 The Bulgarian nobility was strongly opposed to any form of Byzantine influence in the country and was therefore hostile to Christianity as it was directly associated with the Byzantine Empire. Boris I, however, had many reasons to consider conversion — Bulgaria was situated between two powerful Christian empires, Byzantium and East Francia; Christian doctrine particularly favoured the position of the monarch as God's representative on Earth; and finally, Boris also saw Christianity as a way to overcome the differences between Bulgars and Slavs.Andreev, pp. 73-74Fine, p. 118 The geopolitical situation in the mid 9th century was also favourable because of the increasing friction and rivalry between the Papacy in Rome and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople for influence in Central Europe.Runciman, pp. 99-101 That struggle between the two churches would give the Bulgarian ruler the opportunity to manoeuvre and negotiate with both, thus extracting favourable concessions while keeping the country out of direct foreign influence.Andreev, p. 77 When the Byzantines invaded Bulgaria in the autumn of 863 and demanded conversion to Christianity from Constantinople as the single condition to retreat, Boris I readily accepted and was baptised in the beginning of 864, assuming the Christian name Michael after his spiritual godfather, the Byzantine Emperor Michael III. That step was very unpopular among the nobility, but when they rebelled Boris I dealt decisively with them and executed 52 magnates along with their whole families.Fine, p. 119 When in the following year the Byzantines sturdily demonstrated their determination not to allow the existence of an autocephalous Bulgarian Church, Boris I decided to turn to the Papacy.Fine, p. 120
Missions to Rome According to the historical sources there were three Bulgarian missions to the Pope with the participation of Peter, the first one being in the summer of 866. The interest of Boris I in the Roman Church was caused by the reluctance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept his request to appoint an independent patriarch (or at least an archbishop) for the Bulgarian diocese in order to retain it subordinated to Constantinople. Boris I was determined to make Bulgaria Christian while keeping the country's religious and political independence.Beck, 1980, p. 104 Since the end of the 850s the churches of Rome and Constantinople were in a period of a heated competition for influence over the Slavs and the Ecumenical Church power.Sabev, pp. 198-201 This rivalry favoured Boris' plans, as it gave him the opportunity to play one side off against the other and choose. The new orientation of the Bulgarian policy also allowed Boris I to calm down the nobility of the boyars, which was cautious and hostile to the increased Byzantine influence in the country after the Christianization.Fine, 1983, pp. 120-121
First mission The first Bulgarian delegation arrived before Pope Nicholas I on 29 August 866Gyuzelev, 1969, pp. 197-199 — the very same year during which Boris quelled the rebellion of the boyars against Christianization. Among the gifts presented to the Pope by the delegation was the weapon of Boris "with which [he] was armed when in the name of Christ he celebrated over his enemies". The Bulgarians also brought a document with questions by their ruler to the Pope. The content of the questions is reproduced on paragraph 106 of the "Answers of Pope Nicolas to the questions of the Bulgarians".Zlatarski, p. 107 The arrival of the Bulgarian envoys in Rome was a very important event. The Pope enthusiastically spread the news in a letter to Hincmar of Reims and the other archbishops of the Frankish Empire.LIBI, II., pp. 63-64
That Bulgarian mission was mentioned thirteen years later (June 879) in a letter to Boris I, with which Pope John VIII tried to prevent Bulgaria from returning to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. That letter proves Peter's participation in the mission of 866:Zlatarski, p. 105, note 2LIBI, II., pp. 164-165Bozhilov, Gyuzelev, p. 189
The Bulgarian envoys received the answers of Pope Nicolas I at a ceremony in the Lateran Palace on 13 November 866.Gyuzelev, p. 209-210 Soon after that Peter and the other envoys returned to their country along with the papal emissaries Formosus of Portus and Paul of Populona. Both bishops exercised educative activities in Bulgaria. Along with Peter departed other Papal envoys, the bishop of Ostia Donatus, the presbyter Leo and the deacon of the apostolic episcopacy Marinus, who had to continue to Constantinople and there clarify the policy of Rome to the Bulgarians.Zlatarski, pp. 125-126
Second mission
The abilities and the efforts of Formosus of Portus impressed Boris I.Zlatarski, p. 129Gyuzelev, p. 225Later the opponents of Formosus accused him that he took advantage of Boris' trust and forced him to swear that he would propose him to the Pope for archbishop of the Bulgarians (see Hergenröther, p. 616) No later than a year after his first mission in Rome, Peter was put in charge of a second one in order to arrange the ordination of Formosus as Bulgarian archbishop.Gyuzelev notes that the request of Boris I was put forward by the Bulgarian embassy in the second half of 867 (see Gyuzelev, p 226). According to Zlatarski the Pope was informed of the requests of the Bulgarian ruler in written from and the lack of an answer led to the new mission. The Bulgarian delegation arrived in Rome in the second half of 867.Gyuzelev p. 226 Nicolas I declined the proposal concerning Formosus and accepted only the other request of Boris I — to send more presbyters to Bulgaria. The curia prepared a group of clerics led by Dominic of Trivena and Gromuald of Polymartis.Gyuzelev, pp. 228-230 The unexpected death of Nicolas I on 13 November 867 postponed the papal response and the departure of the group. Peter and the other Bulgarian diplomats participated in the burial of the deceased Pope and waited in Rome until the election of a new pontiff. The new Pope Hadrian II confirmed the decisions of his predecessor. In the middle of December the delegation headed back for the Bulgarian capital Pliska by land, with letters to the Bulgarian prince written by Nicolas I. En route to Bulgaria the delegation stayed in the monastery of the town Aquileia, an event noted in the Cividale gospelGyuzelev, pp. 230-231 in which an unknown monk wrote down the names of the Bulgarian envoys and the members of their families:Ivanov, Y., The Bulgarian Names in the Cividale Gospel in Collection in honour of Professor L. Miletich, Macedonian Scientific Institute, 1933, p. 630
The delegation arrived in Pliska in the beginning of 868.Gyuzelev, pp. 233-235 Boris I learned that the Pope had offered him to choose the archbishop of the Bulgarian Church from among the presbyters he had sent.Sabev p. 210 By order Hadrian II, Formosus of Portus and Paul of Populona returned to Rome as early as February in the same year, accompanied by Peter.Bozhilov, Gyuzelev, p. 183Zlatarski gives another chronology, pp. 141-142. See also GIBI, V, p. 16 Boris I was disappointed with the Pope's answers and decided to end the negotiations with Rome.
Third mission The historical source for the positions of the Bulgarian ruler is the biography of Pope Hadrian II, written by the Vatican librarian Anastasius:Gyuzelev, p. 234LIBI pp. 193-194
It is certain that the idea for the application of Marinus was suggested to Boris I by Formosus of Portus. Formosus and Marinus were friends and close associates.Gyuzelev, p. 236After Marinus was elected Pope in 882, he revoked the oath of Formosus never to set foot in Rome and returned his holy orders taken during a synod in 876 by Pope John VIII (See Gregorovius F., Rühl F., Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, vol. 3, 1862, p. 225 and ). Marinus was an influential diplomat who participated in many missions between Rome and Constantinople. However, Hadrian II did not approve of him and suggested for the office one of his trusted men — the subdeacon Silvester. With his decision the Pope underestimated the ambitions of Boris I for independent church policy,Gyuzelev pp. 234-236 which led to the alienation of the Bulgarian ruler from RomeFine, p. 123 and indirectly helped the Patriarchate of Constantinople in its efforts to influence the events in Bulgaria.Beck, p. 109 and Schubert H. v., Geschichte der christlichen Kirche im Frühmittelalter. Ein Handbuch., Tübingen, 1921, p. 517
When in the beginning of 868 Peter and Formosus arrived in Rome, the brothers Cyril and Methodius and their disciples were there on invitation by the Pope.Bozhilov, Gyuzelev, p. 205 Formosus and bishop Gauderig of Veletria ordained many of the brothers' disciples for priests, deacons and subdeacons. It has been suggested that Peter was among the first high-ranking Bulgarians who were acquainted with the ideas of Cyril and Methodius and brought the news to Bulgaria.
The refusal of Hadrian II to ordain a candidate approved by Boris exhausted the patience of the Bulgarian prince.Litavrin, p. 53 After a three-month stay in Bulgaria Silvester returned to Rome with a letter to the Pope in which for the last time Boris I insisted that either Formosus or Marinus be ordained, but the Pope declined the proposal once again.See Bozhilov, Gyuzelev, p. 183. There is a hypothesis that Silvester was accompanied by Peter in his trip to Bulgaria and back to Rome and the refusal was delivered to Peter (i. e., he had at least four travels to Rome, see Gyuzelev, p 144) During that time the Bulgarian ruler had already started negotiations with the Patriarch of Constantinople Ignatius, who was trying to improve the relations with Rome, which had been strained after the mutual anathemas made in 863 by his predecessor Photios I and Pope Nicolas I.In 863 Photios was anathematized by a Roman council and in the same year he pronounced anathema against the Pope (See Litavrin, p. 54). Just like Photios, however, Ignatius did not want to allow a permanent establishment of the Roman Church in Bulgaria.Litavrin, p. 52 In order to settle the differences between the two Churches, the Eighth Ecumenical Council was planned to be held in Constantinople in 869.Gyuzelev, p. 246 After a long stay in Rome (868–869), Peter returned to Bulgaria and was immediately sent to participate in the council.Gyuzelev, p. 144
Mission to Constantinople