Anatolian Seljuk architecture, or simply Seljuk architecture, refers to building activity that took place under the Sultanate of Rum (late 11th to 13th centuries), ruled by an offshoot of the Seljuk dynasty that emerged from the Great Seljuk Empire (11th–12th centuries) alongside various other local dynasties.
The Anatolian Seljuks patronized their own tradition of architecture whose surviving examples are generally found in present-day Turkey. Anatolian Seljuk architecture was eclectic and influenced by multiple traditions including Armenian, Byzantine, Iranian, and Syrian architecture. Unlike earlier Great Seljuk architecture to the east, their buildings were generally constructed in stone and featured significant stone-carved decoration in addition to tile decoration. While the Seljuk Sultanate declined and ended in the late 13th century, architecture continued to flourish and diversify under the smaller Beylik states that followed them in Anatolia, including the early Ottomans.
Historical background The Seljuk Turks created the Seljuk Empire in the 11th century, conquering all of Iran and other extensive territories from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. In 1071, following their victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert, Anatolia was opened up to Turkic settlers. The center of Seljuk architectural patronage was Iran, where the first permanent Seljuk edifices were constructed.
After the decline of the Great Seljuks (the main dynasty centered in Iran) in the late 12th century, various Turkic dynasties formed smaller states and empires across the Middle East. A branch of the Seljuk dynasty ruled a Sultanate in Anatolia (also known as the Anatolian Seljuks or Seljuks of Rum), the Zengids and Artuqids ruled in Northern Mesopotomia and nearby regions, and the Khwarazmian Empire ruled over Iran and Central Asia until the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. In addition to the Anatolian Seljuks, with their capital at Konya, other local dynasties and principalities existed across Anatolia such as the Danishmendids at Kayseri and Sivas, the Saltuqids at Erzurum, and the Mengujekids in Divriği and Erzincan. During the second half of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th century, these other principalities were progressively conquered or assimilated by the Seljuks of Konya. The Danishmendid realm was annexed in 1178, the Saltuqid realm was annexed in 1202, and the Menjukids became an allied local dynasty related to the Konya Seljuks by marriage.
The golden age of the Anatolian Seljuk empire followed in the early 13th century. During the first half of their rule, the Anatolian Seljuks did not engage in much construction activity as they contended with military conflicts and tried to establish themselves. After attaining political stability, they directed more of their energy towards building and developed a distinct architectural style. Under the patronage of the Anatolian Seljuks, the Artuqids, and other local dynasties, both indigenous Christian architectural traditions – such as Byzantine, Armenian, and Georgian – and regional Islamic architectural traditions – such as those of Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Central Asia – were synthesized into a highly inventive and original style, with further local variations under some dynasties.
Anatolian Seljuk architecture is concentrated in major cities of the period such as Konya (their main capital), Kayseri, Sivas, Niğde, and Erzurum, but Seljuk works can be found in almost any major Anatolian town in central and eastern Anatolia. Along the coasts, the Seljuks occupied Antalya and Sinop and built a new fortified port at Alanya. Smaller Turkish principalities in Anatolia – such as the Danishmendids and the Saltuqids who were conquered by the Seljuks – also contributed to the architecture of Anatolia during this era. The Zengids and Artuqids, who had initially served the Great Seljuks before controlling their own realms, also turned cities like Mosul, Diyarbakir, Hasankeyf, and Mardin into important centers of architectural development that had a long-term influence in the wider regions of Anatolia and Syria.
Anatolian Seljuk authority declined after their defeat at the hands of the Mongols in the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243. In eastern Anatolia, the Mongol Ilkhanids ruled indirectly through Seljuk vassals at first, before taking direct control after 1308. Smaller Turkic principalities and emirates emerged locally again, known collectively as the Beyliks. Despite this weakening of Seljuk power in the thirteenth century, their intense building activity continued for some time. Moreover, the Seljuk tradition of architecture largely persisted and continued to evolve under new rulers and patrons. The attachment of a large part of Anatolia to the Ilkhanid Empire may have also renewed artistic connections with Iran, the center of that empire. For example, the construction of monumental portals flanked by two minarets is attested in earlier Iranian Seljuk monuments but did not appear in Anatolian Seljuk monuments until after the Mongol conquest. In central and eastern Anatolia, under dynasties like the Karamanids and the Eretnids, architecture remained fairly traditional. In western Anatolia, Turkish principalities such as the Saruhanids, the Beylik of Aydın, and the Menteşe Beylik all existed on the Byzantine frontier, in a region with many ancient Greek and Roman monuments. As a result, architecture here experimented with both Seljuk elements and Byzantine/Mediterranean traditions. One of these local Turkish dynasties, the Ottomans, eventually went on to establish the Ottoman Empire and developed their own style of Ottoman architecture.
General characteristics
The Anatolian Seljuks ruled a territory that was multi-ethnic and only newly settled by Muslims. As a result, their architecture was eclectic and incorporated influences from other cultures. The fluidity of society on the frontier of the Islamic world, along with the fact that the Seljuks enjoyed only a short period of stable rule before the Mongol invasion, prevented them from developing a unified "imperial" style of architecture. While Konya was a vibrant center of patronage in the early 13th century, it did not necessarily impose its own artistic styles on other cities. Instead, architecture across Anatolia was strongly influenced by the creativity of local craftsmen and by mobile workshops of artisans who travelled the region in search of patrons.
In general, Seljuk architecture combined forms and techniques from Byzantine, Armenian, and Georgian architecture with those of Iran, Syria, Iraq and Central Asia. Seljuk architecture was influenced by Armenian architecture due to the employ of Muslim architects originating from historical Armenia and of Armenian architects and masons. Persian influences also continued to have a strong effect. The influence of other cultures on the Anatolian Seljuks can also be seen by their use of spolia. There are examples of Anatolian Seljuk architecture using spolia material quite visibly in public buildings located at the centers and entrances of cities, such as at the Atabey Ertokuş Madrasa in Atabey (in southwestern Turkey). The high quality of spolia in certain cases, combined with earlier Byzantine laws that prevented important public buildings from being demolished, contributed to preserving elements of ancient architectural traditions.Most Anatolian Seljuk works are of dressed stone, with brick reserved for minarets. The use of stone in Anatolia is the biggest difference with Seljuk buildings in Iran, which are largely made of bricks. This also resulted in more of their monuments being preserved up to modern times. In their construction of caravanserais, madrasas and mosques, the Anatolian Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.
Decoration in Anatolian Seljuk architecture was concentrated on certain elements like entrance portals, windows, and the mihrabs of mosques. Stone-carving was one of the most accomplished mediums of decoration, with motifs ranging from earlier Iranian stucco motifs to local Byzantine and Armenian motifs. Muqarnas ("honeycomb"-like geometric sculpting) was also used. The madrasas of Sivas and the Ince Minareli Medrese in Konya are among the most notable examples, while the Great Mosque and Hospital complex of Divriği is distinguished by the most extravagant and eclectic high-relief stone decoration around its entrance portals and its mihrab. Syrian-style ablaq striped marble also appears on the entrance portal of the Karatay Medrese and the Alâeddin Mosque in Konya. Although tilework was commonly used in Iran, Anatolian architecture innovated in the use of tile revetments to cover entire surfaces independently of other forms of decoration, as seen in the Karatay Medrese.
The culture of late medieval Anatolia heavily emphasized hospitality, which pushed the development of buildings such as caravanserais, Sufi lodges, and other complexes that provided shelter, food, and other services to guests and travelers. The similar layouts and features of Sufi lodges, madrasas, and caravanserais are indicative that, in practice, these different types of institutions were multi-functional and overlapped in their uses. Caravanserais were primarily responsible for serving these functions in the countryside, while other building types were characteristic of urban centres. For example, madrasas were formally designated for the teaching of orthodox Sunni Islamic law and jurisprudence, but the growing influence of Sufism (mystical Islam) meant that they also ended up hosting Sufi activities as well. Especially from the second half of the 13th century onwards, a degree of functional overlap thus existed between madrasas and Sufi establishments, not unlike similar developments under the contemporary Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt.
Mosques Anatolian Seljuk mosque architecture was a combination of Turkish-Islamic culture and Anatolian traditions. The four-iwan plan, developed under the earlier Seljuks in Iran, did not appear in Anatolian Seljuk mosques. The congregational mosques (also known as an Ulu Cami or "great mosque") built by the Anatolian Seljuks included more conservative hypostyle constructions alongside less traditional floor plans. Hypostyle structures had wide halls with rows of columns or pillars supporting the ceiling. Major examples of this include the Great Mosque of Sivas (1197) and the Alaeddin Mosque of Konya (built over multiple periods between 1156 and 1235, with later additions). Most of the twelfth-century great mosques in both the southeastern and northeastern regions of the Seljuq empire place a dome in front of the mihrab. The minarets of Seljuk mosques were built of stone or brick, usually resting on a stone base, and typically had a cylindrical or polygonal shaft that is less slender than later Ottoman minarets. They were sometimes embellished with decorative brickwork or glazed ceramic decoration up the level of their balconies.
The smallest type of mosque is the mescid (from Arabic masjid). It was developed during the thirteenth century in central Anatolia and was composed of a square chamber topped by a dome. This type of mosque could be a freestanding structure or it could be integrated into a larger building. Another type of small mosque is the citadel mosque, or kale mescidi, which was developed in eastern Turkey during the twelfth century. These citadel mosques had more involved plans compared to other small mosques, with an interior divided into several aisles that were covered with barrel vaults and cross-vaults. Examples of this type are the citadel mosques in Divriği (1180–1181) and Erzurum (12th century).