The Brazilian War of Independence () was an armed conflict that led to the separation of Brazil from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The war was fought across various regions of Brazil, including Bahia, Maranhão, Pará, Piauí, and Cisplatina (present-day Uruguay), with naval battles occurring along the Atlantic coast. Brazilian forces, consisting of regular troops, local militias, and a hastily assembled fleet, defeated the Portuguese garrisons to establish the Empire of Brazil under emperor Pedro I. The war formally ended with the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro in 1825, in which Portugal recognized Brazil's independence.
After the outbreak of the Liberal Revolution in 1820, which forced king John VI to return to Portugal in 1821 after more than a decade in Rio de Janeiro, tensions between local Brazilian elites and the Portuguese Cortes arose. During his stay in Brazil, John VI had elevated the colony to the status of a kingdom in union with Portugal. The changes allowed Brazil to have its own government institutions and directly trade with the rest of the world, which many elites sought to preserve. Efforts by the Portuguese Cortes to restore Brazil to its former colonial status and reduce its political autonomy were met with resistance in various provinces. The tensions culminated in prince regent Pedro of Braganza's proclamation of independence on 7 September 1822, in what became known as the Cry of Ipiranga. Northern provinces, such as Bahia, Maranhão, and Pará, which maintained stronger ties with Portugal than the government in Rio de Janeiro, resisted Brazilian sovereignty, with Portuguese garrisons keeping control of key cities such as Salvador, São Luís, Belém, and Montevideo, in the South.
Under the command of French general Pierre Labatut, supported by British admiral Thomas Cochrane at sea, the Brazilian Army, consisting of regular troops, militia, and volunteers, gradually isolated the Portuguese forces in Bahia, where the siege of Salvador ended with the surrender of approximately 10,000 Portuguese troops on 2 July 1823. On the northern front, Cochrane secured the surrender of Maranhão and Pará. Troops were recruited from various provinces and social classes, and also included slaves who were promised freedom in exchange for military service. The Brazilian Army faced logistical difficulties, poor training, and internal disputes between commanders, particularly in the early stages of the war. In turn, the Imperial Navy disrupted Portuguese supply lines, prevented the arrival of reinforcements from Europe, and captured several enemy vessels. In total, Brazilian troops numbered between 30,000 and 40,000 men, while Portuguese ones numbered around 20,000.
The conflict officially ended with the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, mediated by the United Kingdom, in which Brazil committed to paying Portugal an indemnity of 2 million pounds and grant trade privileges to the United Kingdom. Through the war, Brazil secured its territorial unity and established itself as a constitutional monarchy, in contrast with the fragmented neighboring republics that emerged from the Spanish American Wars of Independence.
Opposing forces
The population of Colonial Brazil at the turn of the 19th century was 3.4 million. 60% of them were free men, mostly of Portuguese descent.
It is difficult to say how many Reinóis (those born in Portugal) lived in Brazil in 1822, since all inhabitants were subjects of Portugal. The majority of the population lived near the Atlantic Ocean, mainly in the provinces of Pernambuco, Bahia and Minas Gerais. These three regions dominated economic and political life of the colony. The Pernambuco region thrived by producing sugar, a crop of great value at the time. The southern Bahia region produced sugar, cotton, tobacco and molasses. It was the most densely populated and richest region. Further south was Rio de Janeiro, which controlled the gold and diamond production of Minas Gerais.
The Portuguese army in Brazil consisted of professional troops and militiamen. All officers were appointed by the Court of Lisbon. In 1817, a Republican revolt broke out in Pernambuco. As a result, 2,000 soldiers of the "Auxiliary Division" were sent to Brazil. With the arrival of the troops, native officers in Brazil were not given many responsibilities.
At the start of the war, there were about 10,000 Portuguese soldiers and units of the royal cavalry along the Atlantic coast. About 3,000 soldiers were later besieged in Montevideo. A similar number of soldiers occupied Salvador and the rest of the troops were scattered throughout Brazil.
History Start of the war During late 1821 and early 1822, the inhabitants of Brazil took sides in the political upheavals that took place in Rio de Janeiro and Lisbon. Fights between Portuguese soldiers and local militias broke out in the streets of the main cities in 1822 Laurentino Gomes; 1822 Nova Fronteira, Brasil 2010 Chapter 10, p. 161 and quickly spread inland, despite the arrival of reinforcements from Portugal. The Portuguese reinforcements summoned to Rio numbered nearly two thousand, but ultimately withdrew in the interest of minimizing damages and casualty to the estimated ten thousand militiamen surrounding them upon their arrival.Graham, Richard. Independence in Latin America [Independence in Latin America: Contrasts and Comparisons] (3rd ed.). pp. 129–136.
There was a split in the Luso-Brazilian Army which was garrisoned in the Cisplatina province (modern-day Uruguay). Portuguese regiments retreated to Montevideo and were besieged by Brazilians, led by the Baron of Laguna (himself a Portuguese, but, as many other aristocrats, on the side of Brazilian independence). One such aristocrat, José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, was responsible for proliferating Luso-Brazilian views on diplomacy and political structure.Barman, Roderick J. (1994). Brazil: the forging of a nation, 1798–1852. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. Pedro I, with the guidance of José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva as chief minister, assembled a constituent congress for Brazil appealing to the constitutionalist sentiments amongst independence-minded Brazilians. This gesture was enough to persuade the Cortes in Lisbon to negotiate exclusive terms of trade in recognition of their independence, which was met with ridicule from Pedro. Pedro declared Brazil completely independent of Portugal on 7 September 1822. Shortly after, in December, Pedro would assume the role of authority as Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.
The remote and sparsely populated northern provinces of Pará and Maranhão declared loyalty to Portugal. Pernambuco was in favor of independence, but in Bahia there was no consensus among the population. By the war's end, Bahia would see the most extensive combat throughout the conflict,Kraay, Hendrik (2001). Race, state, and armed forces in independence-era Brazil: Bahia, 1790's–1840's. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. pp. 106–140. but at this time its influence was paramount to the Portuguese effort for securing political interests in surrounding regions. While Portuguese forces were able to stop the local militias in certain cities, including Salvador, Montevideo and São Luís, they failed to defeat the militias in most of the other cities and proved ineffective against the guerrilla forces in the rural areas of the country.
Supporters of Brazilian Independence created and enlarged the Brazilian Army Navy by forced enlistment of citizens, foreign immigrants and mercenaries. They enlisted Brazilian slaves into militias and also freed slaves in order to enlist them in the army and the navy.
By 1823, the Brazilian Army had grown, replacing its early losses in terms of both personnel and supplies. The remaining Portuguese forces, already on the defensive, were rapidly running out of both manpower and supplies. Outnumbered across a vast territory, the Portuguese were forced to restrict their sphere of action to the provincial capitals along the shore that represented the country's strategic sea ports, including Belém, Montevideo, Salvador and São Luís.
Naval action Both parties (Portuguese and Brazilian) saw the Portuguese warships spread across the country (mostly in poor condition) as the instrument through which military victory could be achieved. In early 1822, the Portuguese navy controlled a ship of the line, two frigates, four corvettes, two brigs, and four warships of other categories in Brazilian waters.
Warships available immediately for the new Brazilian navy were numerous, but in disrepair. The hulls of several ships that were brought by the Royal Family and the Court to be abandoned in Brazil were rotten and therefore of little value. Some underwent repairs and saw action in the war, however, such as the ship of the line Pedro I. The Brazilian agent in London, Felisberto Caldeira Brant, the Marquis of Barbacena, received orders to acquire warships fully equipped and manned on credit. No vendor, however, was willing to take the risks. Finally, there was an initial public offering, and the new Emperor personally signed for 350 of them, inspiring others to do the same. Thus, the new government was successful in raising funds to purchase a fleet.
Arranging crews was another problem. A significant number of former officers and Portuguese sailors volunteered to serve the new nation, and swore loyalty to it. Their loyalty, however, was under suspicion. For this reason, British officers and sailors were recruited to fill out the ranks and end the dependence on the Portuguese.
The Brazilian Navy was led by British officer Thomas Cochrane. The newly renovated navy experienced a number of early setbacks due to sabotage by Portuguese-born men in the naval crews. But by 1823 the navy had been reformed and the Portuguese members were replaced by native Brazilians, freed slaves, pardoned prisoners as well as more experienced British and American mercenaries. The navy succeeded in clearing the coast of the Portuguese presence and isolating the remaining Portuguese land troops. By the end of 1823, the Brazilian naval forces had pursued the remaining Portuguese ships across the Atlantic nearly as far as the shores of Portugal.
Key battles
Pernambuco Siege of Recife
Piauí and Maranhão Battle of Jacaré Battle of Jenipapo Siege of Caxias
Grão-Pará Belém Rebellion Muaná Revolt
Bahia Invasion of the Convent of Lapa Battle of Pirajá Battle of Itaparica Battle of 4 May 1823 Siege of Salvador
Cisplatina Siege of MontevideoSiege of Montevideo (1822–1824) Battle of Montevideo
Proclamation of Independence Seeking to replicate his triumph in Minas Gerais, Pedro rode to São Paulo in August to secure support and began a disastrous affair with Doña Domitila de Castro—his future mistress— which would years later undermine his government. Upon returning from a trip to Santos, Pedro received messages from his wife, Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, and from Andrada e Silva, informing him that the Portuguese Cortes deemed his government "treacherous" and that the Lisbon court was dispatching more troops to Brazil to forcibly ensure the Brazilians' obedience to King John VI.
Peace treaty and aftermath
The Portuguese military defeat was not followed by swift recognition of Brazil's independence. From 1822 to 1825 the Portuguese Government engaged in heavy diplomatic efforts to prevent the recognition of Brazil's independence by the European Powers, invoking the principles of the Congress of Vienna and subsequent European alliances.
In 1824, in the wake of the adoption of the Constitution of the Empire of Brazil on 25 March, the United States of America became one of the first nations to recognize the independence of Brazil.