Kiliwa (also Kiliwi, Ko’lew or Quiligua) (in Kiliwa: ) is a Yuman language spoken in Baja California, in the far northwest of Mexico, by the Kiliwa people.
Seventy-six people reported their language as Kiliwa in a 2020 census.Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020 INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020. However, a count in 2018 found only four speakers remaining.
History The Kiliwa language was extensively studied by Mauricio J. Mixco, who published Kiliwa texts as well as a dictionary and studies of syntax.
As recently as the mid-1900s, Mixco reported that members of the native community universally spoke Kiliwa as their first language, with many Kiliwas also bilingual in Paipai. At the start of the twenty-first century, Kiliwa is still spoken; a 2000 census reported 52 speakers. However, the language is considered to be in danger of extinction.
Kiliwa is a language of the Yuman Family Language Summit, held annually since 2001.
Classification Kiliwa is the southernmost representative of the Yuman family, and the one that is most distinct from the remaining languages, which constitute Core Yuman. The Kiliwa's neighbors to the south, the Cochimí, spoke a language or a family of languages that was probably closely related to but not within the Yuman family. Consequently, the Kiliwa lie at the historic "center of gravity" for the differentiation of Yuman from Cochimí and of the Yuman branches from each other.
Linguistic prehistorians are not in agreement as to whether the Kiliwa's linguistic ancestors are most likely to have migrated into the Baja California peninsula from the north separately from the ancestors of the Cochimí and the Core Yumans, or whether they became differentiated from those groups in place. The controversial technique of glottochronology suggests that the separation of Kiliwa from Core Yuman may have occurred about 2,000–3,000 years ago.
Phonology Consonants BilabialAlveolarPalatalVelarUvularGlottalplainlab.plainlab.NasalStop/AffricateFricativeRhoticApproximant Intervocalic allophones of /p, t, k, kʷ/ can occur as [β, ð, ɣ, ɣʷ]. An approximant sound such as /j/ after a glottal /h/ can become devoiced as [j̊], as with a devoiced [ʍ] sound being an allophone of /hʷ/.
Vowels There are three vowel quantities; /i, u, a/, that can also be distinguished with vowel length /iː, uː, aː/. Close vowel sounds /i, u/ can range to mid vowel sounds as [e, o], and with vowel length as [eː, oː]. An epenthetic schwa sound [ə] can occur within root-initial consonant clusters.
Pitch accent Kiliwa has three pitch accents, those being high-level, high-falling, and low level.
Orthography
Alphabet The Kiliwa language is written using a modified Roman alphabet, as the language's culture has historically been unwritten and entirely oral. It consists of 15 consonants which includes 3 digraphs: ⟨b⟩, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨h⟩, ⟨hh⟩, ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨nh⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨y⟩. +AlphabetLetterPhonemeKiliwa examplesEnglish translationb/b/A'bobuin ÁbelWhich? Where?ch/t͡ʃ/Chiin JcheetLaugh Stealg/g/Mugaw MsigFlour Oneh/h/Ha' HaaMouth Yesk/k/Jaq KujatBone Bloodl/l/Lepee Msigl paaypLiver Sixm/m/Meyaal SmakTortilla Leafn/n/Nay MpaanKid Sisterny/ɲ/Nhieeg JnhieelBlack Lariatp/p/Pa GapStomach Pains/s/Smaa KiisSleep Larget/t/Tmaa MatEat Now/w/KuwaaSity/j/Yiit TaySeed Big'/ʔ/Jo’on Msi'Very Star
There are also 5 short and 5 long vowels: /a/, /aː/, /e/, /eː/, /i/, /iː/, /o/, /oː/ , /u/, and /uː/. These are represented in the chart below. +VowelsVowelsIPAKiliwa ExamplesEnglish Translationa/a/Ábel TayWhere Bigaa/aː/Jaa Maaw YaaywaaTo go Grandma scorpione/e/Enhoop Pel wat Miy pi jseFight To return Quillee/eː/Eel Teey JuweeSore Night To givei/i/Ipaa
Kaichmaa
KemelootíPeople Money/metal/ironii/iː/Yiit Chiin TiingkiilSeed Laughter mockingbirdo/o/Kotip JsiloHeart Holeoo/oː/Enhoop KekooFight/ To struggle Womanu/u/Ujaa Ku'nipLook after/look out for Pooruu/uː/Uusmaat Piyauup KuuSleep To carry/load Grandpa (maternal) Other digraphs used in the Kiliwa language include: gu, hu, and ku. They are shown in the chart below. Digraphs Phoneme Kiliwa Examples English Translationgu/ɡʷ/Pagu HkuiguRabbit Hunthu/hʷ/Phuhk’ ii Mphuh-miThud This box/baghu/hʷ/Huwaa u Ju sawiSeat Cleanku/kʷ/Hkuigu TukuipaaiTo hunt Animal The inclusion of / , / is used as a brief pause, such as that in Spanish.
Numbers Numbers in Kiliwa can be expressed up to several thousands without the use of Spanish loanwords. Counting is done using both fingers and toes. There is a resemblance of the Kiliwa word ‘sal’ which is the root for ‘finger/hand’.Mixco, Mauricio J. (2013). Introduction to the Kiliwa Language. Department of Linguistics, University of Utah. NumberKiliwaEnglish translation1MsigOne2JuwakTwo3Jmi'kThree4MnakFour5SalchipamFive6Msigl paaypSix7Juwakl paaypSeven8Jmi'kl paaypEight9Msig tkmatNine10Chipam msigTen The following numbers are formed by using the form for the ten's place 'chipam' followed by its multiplier digit (the digits of those listed above from 1-9). NumberKiliwaEnglish translation10Chipam msigTen20Chipam juwakTwenty30Chipam jmi'kThirty40Chipam mnakForty50Chipam salchipamFifty60Chipam msigl paaypSixty70Chipam juwakl paaypSeventy80Chipam jmi'kl paaypEighty90Chipam msig tkmatNinety The hundreds are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam’ followed by the multiplier digits found in that of numbers 1-9. NumberKiliwaEnglish translation100Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msigOne hundred200Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwakTwo hundred300Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi'kThree hundred400Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam mnakFour hundred500Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam salchipamFive hundred600Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msigl paaypSix hundred700Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwakl paaypSeven hundred800Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi'kl paaypEight hundred900Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msig tkmatNine hundred Lastly, the thousands are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kuetet’ before using the multiplier digits once again. NumberKiliwaEnglish Translation1,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet msigOne thousand2,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet juwakTwo thousand3,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet hmi'kThree thousand4,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet mnakFour thousand5,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet salchipamFive thousand6,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet msigl paaypSix thousand7,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet juwakl paaypSeven thousand8,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet jmi'kl paaypEight thousand9,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet msig tkmatNine thousand10,000Chipam msig u’ kuetet cipam msigTen thousand
Morphology The morphology in the Kiliwa language consists of many affixes and clitics. More of these are available on the verb rather than the noun. These affixes are usually untouched and added on to a modified root.
Singular and plurals In Kiliwa there are multiple ways of pluralizing words. There are several to differentiate it from the singular form. The most common affixes are t, chau, m, u and si’waa. Singular Plural LanguageThis MiThese Mit1.English 2.KiliwaSit KuwaaAll of you sit Kuwaat1.English 2.KiliwaCome! KiyeeAll of you come Kitiyee1.English 2.KiliwaWant UnyieeyWe want Unyieey chau1.English 2.KiliwaOwl OjooOwls Ojoo chau1.English 2.KiliwaHill WeeyHills Uweey1.English 2.KiliwaCoyote Mlti’Coyotes Mlti’ si’waa1.English 2.KiliwaEye YuuEyes Yuum1.English 2.Kiliwa There are also some instances in which the plural form changes the vowels, for example: Kill! (Kinyii); Kill them! (Kenyoot); Grab! (Kiyuu); Grab them! (Kiyeewi); Stand! (Ku'um); All of you stand! (Ke'ewi).
Adverbs Used in adjectives or nouns to denote a superlative degree of meaning.
Examples: Good/betterMgaai maaiDwarfNmoohh maaiHeavyMechaa maaiInjuredTgap maaiHorribleHhchool maai Other adverbs include: Mgaai (better), Mak (here), Paak (there), Psap mi (today), Hhchoom (yesterday), Kiis i'bm (later), Mat pi’im kun (never)
Examples: Is betterMgaai gapShe is the bestPaa mgaai gap etoHe is better than mePaa mgaai gap nhal im mat There is no one hereMak ma'ali umaGet out of hereMak kpaamCome hereMak kiyee There it isPaak kuwaaThe car passed by thereOwa' kose'hhin e' mil pahhkaai tomatStand right therePaa ku'u' kiyuu I can't todayPsap mi ahhaa mat semiooMy mom will come todayPsap mi nhab nh'oo puhhaaThe party is todayEnhiaai yiima’ u’ enhiaai mim It rained a lot yesterdayHhchoom hhu'hhak maaiMy dad left yesterdayNhab s’oot hhchoom kupaa tomatI went to the beach yesterdayHhchoom hha' tayel ahhaa I’ll see you laterKiis i’bm maat psaawi I’ll never visit youMat pi’im kun mil waal ahhaa matWhy don’t you ever come?Piyim mat pi’im miyee mat mi o'Why don’t you ever visit me?Mat pi’im kun pinhee mi mat i'
Adjectives -Tay: something of a big/great size for animals and objects or someone obtains a higher power/status due to profession.
Examples: Big head'Ii tayBig nosePi' tayBig dogTat tay AttorneyHa' kumaag tayArchitectUwa' kosay tayPainterTukujaay tay Suffix P is used to signify something of a smaller degree for several adjectives.
Examples: WetJa'alSomewhat wetJa'alp DarkTeeySomewhat darkTeeyp BlackNyieegSomewhat blackNyieegp SkinnyJo'onSomewhat skinnyJo'onp DryS'aaySomewhat dryS’aayp
Conjunctions Conjunctions are connect two or more ideas into a single sentence.There are also disjunctive conjunctions to separate two or more mutually exclusive options presented in a sentence.
Examples: /and/ translates in Kiliwa to e. Juan and PedroJuan e Pedro eWater and saltJa' e kuii eDog and catTat e nmi’ eYou and IMa’p e nyaapChair and tableJuwaa u’ e tmaa tay u’
Verbs
Verbs are more complicated than nouns in Kiliwa language There are more verb prefixes present, and fewer suffixes and infixes The prefixes demonstrate more structure within the grammar
Conjugation The conjugation allows us to tell what the action is doing and taking place in the verb
Example in Kiliwa: Conjugation of Verb Tmaa (eat)
Past and present
Present Source: I eatNhaap tmaaYou eatMa'p tma-maaHe/She eatsNhipaa tmaaWe eatPanhaap tmaaThey eatNhipaat tmaa-t
Past Source: I ateNhaap kuiil tmaaYou ateMa'p kuiil tmamaaHe/She ateNhipaa kuiil tmaaWe atePanhaap kuiil tmaat chauThey ateNhipaat kuiil tmaat chau
Future Source: I will eatNhaap tmaa seti' uma'You will eatMa'p tmamaa seti' uma'He/She will eatNhipaa tmaa seti' uma'We will eatPanhaap tmaat chaut seti' uma'They will eatNhipaat tmaat chaut seti' uma'
Nouns In the Kiliwa language they are marked by the definite and indefinite
DefiniteIndefinite-hi (singular) -si(singular)
Determiner NP Kiliwa has 3 degrees of distance that appear in the third person pronoun
Examples: -mi“This” (near speaker) -paa“That” (near hearer) -nyaa“That” (far from both)
Demonstrative NP Kiliwa language is also measured in the independent third-person pronoun in the demonstrative Np
Examples:
Mi-chau → ‘these;they’ → (near speaker)
paa-chau → ‘those;they → (near hearer)
nyaa-chau → “those;they → (far from both)
mi-t cham ‘This/(s)he leaves (it)’
mi-chau-t caam-u → ‘These/they leave (it)’
m '-saau ‘I see this one/him/her’
mi-chau=m=juak-m ʔ-cam → ‘I leave with these/them’
mi-chau-l '-saau ‘I looked into these one/them’
Gender markers When referring to a male human or animal one adds kumeei
When referring to a female human or animal one adds kökoo
Axis Example: kumeei is male and kökoo is female DogTat(Female) dogTat kökoo(Male) dogTat kumeeiCow / BullHhakCowHhak kökooBullHhak kumeei
Syntax Kiliwa is a verb-final language that usually follows the order subject-object-verb. Dependent object clause should be found before the verb, whereas relative or adjectival clauses appear following the noun they modify. While behavioral context, negations, auxiliaries, etc. can alter the placement of certain aspects, the Object-Verb form remains true in most sentences.
Example of transitive sentence in which the structure is simply object-verb: