The Peshmerga () are the internal security forces of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. According to the Constitution of Iraq, federal regions (such as the Kurdistan Region) are responsible for "the establishment and organization of the internal security forces for the respective regions, such as police, security forces, and regional guards."
The history of Kurdish armed forces dates back to antiquity, with Kurdish military forces becoming more organized between the 16th and 19th centuries, when they served Kurdish tribal leaders and principalities, as well as the Ottoman and Safavid states as auxiliary and border forces. During the 20th century, these forces developed into increasingly organized guerrilla movements associated with Kurdish nationalist movements. The modern Peshmerga emerged in 1946 as the self-declared national army of the Republic of Mahabad. In the late 20th and beginning of the 21st century, the Peshmerga became institutionalized as the armed forces of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). The term Peshmerga has also been used for a variety of Kurdish militias and armed groups, especially in Iranian Kurdistan, such as for the armed wings of the KDPI, PAK and Komala.
Formally, the Peshmerga are under the command of the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs (MoPA) of the KRG. On September 10 2026, the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs announced the completion of the process to unify and reorganize all Peshmerga forces under the Ministry, bringing the former 70 and 80 Forces into a unified command-and-control structure. Since the establishment of the Kurdistan Region in 1992, the Peshmerga was largely divided between the two main Iraqi Kurdish political parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Its integration under the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs was pursued over subsequent years, including through a 2022 U.S.–KRG memorandum of understanding.
Other security institutions of the Kurdistan Region include the Zêrevanî, Asayish, Parastin u Zanyarî, and the Kurdish police force.
Etymology The word "Peshmerga" can be translated to "to stand in front of death",From the Kurdish () "before" and "death". and Valentine states it was first used by Qazi Muhammad in the short-lived Mahabad Republic (1946–47).Valentine, Those Who Face Death, KDP, 2018. The word is understandable to Persian speakers. Because, the name was also used to refer to an elite unit within the Sassanid Empire's military, specifically a sub-unit of the Pushtigban, called the Gyan-avspar. These warriors were renowned for their unwavering loyalty and bravery, often serving as the last line of defense for the Sassanid kings. The Persian expression "pishmarg-e kesi shodan" literally meant "to die before someone."Aspects of Iranian Linguistics, 2008, pp. 15, ISBN 9781443810135.
History
Early Kurdish militaries Long before the establishment of the Peshmerga, Kurdish fighters were known in the Middle East for their military traditions and use of guerrilla tactics.S. R. Valentine, Peshmerga: Those Who Face Death, KDP, 2018, see the introduction and chapter one. In antiquity, Babylonian sources from around the 7th century BC referred to the inhabitants of the mountains of what is now southern Kurdistan as Qutil. The term has been suggested to derive from the Akkadian word qardu and the Persian word gurd, both of which are associated with meanings such as "hero" or "warrior." Conflicts between these presumed proto-Kurdish mountain communities and the peoples of Lower Mesopotamia are documented in pre-Biblical sources and are regarded as some of the earliest examples of guerrilla-style warfare in the region. Between AD 224 and 226, Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire, fought Kurdish forces but only gained partial control. His successor, Ardashir II, ended their remaining autonomy in the mountains. Ardashir called the Kurdish fighters jânspâr/gyan-avspar, meaning "self-sacrificers," similar to the later Peshmerga.
In the Islamic period, Kurdish soldiers most notably fought under Saladin. Elite units were predominantly composed of Kurds, and Saladin's personal guard was generally drawn from Kurdish members.Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz, Saladin (State University of New York Press, 1972), pp. 44–45Stephen Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–1260 (SUNY Press, 1977), p. 23Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh University Press, 1999), pp. 116–117
From the 16th to the 19th century, Kurdish fighters served under various tribal leaders and principalities, and sometimes as paramilitary border guards under Ottoman and Safavid rule, while also participating in the regular armies of these empires. Under the Kurdish Zand dynasty, women were allowed to serve alongside their husbands, reflecting a level of gender equality more common in Kurdish societies than in neighboring Muslim communities.
In the 19th century, Badr Khan mobilized 70,000 Kurdish fighters in campaigns against the Ottoman Empire to establish his own dynasty. Similarly, Sheikh Ubeydullah gathered around 20,000 fighters in opposition to Ottoman rule.
In response to increasing Kurdish mobilization and tribal attacks, the Ottoman Empire established the Hamidiye Cavalry to secure Kurdish loyalty under the banner of Pan-Islamism. The Hamidiye Cavalry is often considered a precursor to the modern Peshmerga, particularly in terms of military organization and training. The Hamidiye Cavalry provided many Kurds with their first experience in organized, non-tribal warfare, teaching them military tactics and the use of modern equipment. Officers from these units (e.g.: Halis Öztürk and Halid Beg Cibran), but also former members of the regular Ottoman army (e.g.: Ihsan Nuri, Ibrahim Heski, and various members of the Society for the Rise of Kurdistan, Azadî, and Xoybûn), later became influential in Kurdish uprisings and helped shape the structure of future Kurdish forces.
20th century Kurdish revolts
The Kurdish revolts of the early 20th century, such as the uprisings led by Sheikh Mahmoud Barzanji, the Ali Batı Revolt, the Koçgiri rebellion, the Beytüşşebab rebellion, the Sheikh Said rebellion, the Ararat Rebellion, and the Ahmed Barzani revolt, played an important role in the development of the modern Peshmerga. These events provided early experience in guerrilla and non-conventional warfare against state authorities and contributed to the spread of Kurdish nationalism among Kurdish fighters. They also strengthened the Barzani tribe, from which key leaders like Ahmed Barzani and Mustafa Barzani emerged.
Building on the military experience gained during these uprisings, Mustafa Barzani later organized Kurdish forces in order to liberate Kurdistan. In 1943, he led approximately 2,000 Kurdish fighters in an uprising against the Iraqi Army and British forces, an event often regarded as a precursor to the modern Peshmerga forces that would later emerge, particularly during the period of the Republic of Mahabad.
Mahabad Republic During the brief existence of the self-declared Republic of Mahabad (1946–1947), a contingent of Kurdish fighters led by Mustafa Barzani served as its official national army after Barzani crossed the Iraq–Iran border to support the establishment of the Kurdish state in Iranian Kurdistan.
According to Kurdish lore, the leaders of Mahabad gathered to choose a name for their army. As the story goes, they struggled to find a suitable word for 'soldier.' A server, overhearing their discussion, suggested peshmerga, a slang term from his nearby village. The name was adopted, and the force was formally named the Peshmerga. Furthermore, under president Qazi Muhammad’s orders, a committee of “hand-picked litterateurs and writers” also developed distinct Kurdish military terminology to define ranks and positions.
The relative of Simko Shikak, Amr Khan Shikak, along with the tribal leader of Baneh, Hama Rashid, Khan Banei, and Zero Beg Herki, were appointed as Marshals of the Peshmerga army by the Minister of War, Mohammed Hossein Saif Qazi. Due to his extensive warfare experience Mustafa Barzani was appointed as Marshal and chief of staff of the army. Officers maintained a professional appearance through their Soviet-style uniforms, further advised and organized by the Soviet military officer Captain Salahaddin Kazimov. The Soviets continued their influence by sending at least 60 Kurdish officers to Soviet Azerbaijan for additional military training. The Mahabad army consisted of about 70 officers, 40 non-commissioned officers, and 1,200 privates. As one of the senior leaders, Mustafa Barzani was responsible for appointing officers within the ranks.
In order to protect the republic's sovereignty, the Peshmerga engaged in their first fight during the Battle of Qahrawa, near the town of Saqqez. They ambushed an Iranian garrison, killing 21 soldiers, wounding 17, and capturing 40. By mid-May 1946 Kurdish forces numbered approximately 12,750 Peshmerga, but most Kurdish offensives were limited to minor skirmishes.
Fall of the republic
The withdrawal of Soviet support and the subsequent collapse of the republic, including the execution of its head of state, Qazi Muhammad, dismantled the Peshmerga's organization, who had agreed with the Iranians to peacefully withdraw from the capital of Mahabad, to avoid civilians casualties. Peshmerga forces led by Barzani remained active in rural areas of Iranian Kurdistan for a period following the collapse of the republic and engaged Iranian Army units in March 1947. During these clashes, the Peshmerga reportedly inflicted significant casualties and captured several Iranian officers, particularly during the Battle of Nalos, including Lieutenant Jahanbani, the son of General Nader Jahanbani.
Iranian attacks continued against the remaining Peshmerga forces, prompting Barzani to order a retreat toward his home region of Barzan in Iraqi Kurdistan. Upon reaching the Iraqi–Iranian border, several returning Peshmerga officers were arrested by the Iraqi Army and executed, despite earlier assurances of amnesty. In an effort to capture Barzani, Iraqi authorities subsequently deployed large numbers of troops to the region. Anticipating further action, Barzani and his followers fled once again, moving along the Turkish–Iranian border and eventually into the Soviet Union, where they remained in exile until 1958.
Iraqi Kurdistan