In Judaism, the (; ; ), also romanized as or , is any of a variety of sacrificial offerings described and commanded in the Torah.
The term primarily refers to sacrificial offerings given by humans to God to show homage, win favor, or secure pardon. The object sacrificed was usually an animal that was ritually slaughtered and then transferred from the human to the divine realm by being burned upon an altar. Other sacrifices included grain offerings, which were made from flour and oil instead of meat, and the incense offering.
After the destruction of the Second Temple, sacrifices were prohibited because there was no longer a temple in Jerusalem—the only location permitted by Halakha and biblical law for sacrificial offerings. The offering of sacrifices may have been briefly reinstated in Jerusalem during the Bar Kokhba Revolt, one of the Jewish–Roman wars of the second century CE, but the historical record is unclear.
When sacrifices were offered by the Israelites and, later, early Jews, they were offered as a fulfillment of the mitzvot ('commandments') enumerated in the Torah and Halakha. According to Orthodox Judaism, the coming of the prophesied Messiah will not vacate the requirement for Jews to keep the 613 commandments. When the Temple is rebuilt (as the Third Temple), sacrificial offerings may resume; Jewish religious movements disagree on whether this will be the case.
While some were offered as part of routine atonement for transgressions, their role was strictly limited. In Judaism, atonement can be achieved through means other than sacrificial offerings, including repentance, ('charitable giving'), and ('prayer').
Etymology The Semitic root () means and is found in a number of related languages in addition to Hebrew, e.g. in the Akkadian language noun , meaning . In Hebrew it is found in a number of words, such as , , , , and the verb form , . It is also related to the Arabic Islamic term qurban and to the Syriac Holy Qurbana.
The noun (plural , ) first occurs in the Bible in and occurs 80 times in the Masoretic Text: 40 times in Leviticus, 38 in Numbers and twice in Ezekiel.Concordance: קׇרְבָּן The related form appears only in and referring to the 'wood offering'. The etymology of the 'offer' sense is traditionally understood as deriving from the verbal sense of 'bringing near', viz. bringing the offering near to the deity,Judaism in biological perspective: biblical lore and Judaic practices Rick Goldberg - 2008 "The traditional etymology of korban is of a valuable object "brought near to God" (through the sacrificial act)." but some theological explanations see it rather as bringing "man back to God".Solomon Schechter in Understanding rabbinic Judaism, from Talmudic to modern times ed. Jacob Neusner p229 "Hence the injunction to bring a Korban (sacrifice) even in this case; the effect of the Korban, as its etymology (Karab) indicates, is to bring man back to God, or rather to facilitate this approach."
The Septuagint generally translates the term in Koine Greek as , , , , or , . By the Second Temple period, Hellenistic Jewish texts use korban specifically to mean a vow. The New Testament preserves korban once as a transliterated loan-word for a vow, once also a related noun, (), otherwise using , or and other terms drawn from the Septuagint. Josephus also generally uses other words for 'offering' but uses for the vow of the Nazirites (Antiquities of the Jews 4:73 / 4,4,4) and cites Theophrastus as having cited a korban vow among the Tyrians (Against Apion 1.167 / 1,22,4).S Zeitlin Korban The Jewish Quarterly Review, 1962 - JSTOR "Josephus, in Against Apion, who endeavored to ... Greek world was acquainted with the Judaeans, wrote that, "The laws of the Tyrians forbid men to swear foreign oaths, among which he [Theophrastus] enumerates some others and particularly that called korban, which oath ..."
Purpose The idea conveyed in most was that of a "gift" to God.
served a variety of purposes. Many were brought purely for the purpose of communing with God and becoming closer to God, or in order to express thanks, gratitude, and love to God.
While some were offered as part of the atonement process for sin, this role was strictly limited. Standard sin-offerings could only be offered for unintentional sins; according to the rabbis, they could not be offered for all sins, but only for unintentional violations of some of the most serious sins.Mishnah, Kritot 1:1-2 In addition, generally had no expiating effect without sincere repentanceMishneh Torah, Laws of Repentance 1:3,6 and restitution to any person who was harmed by the violation.Mishnah, Yoma 8:9 In the absence of sacrifices, atonement can still be achieved through means such as repentance, prayer, or giving .
The slaughter of an animal sacrifice is not considered a fundamental part of the sacrifice, but rather is an unavoidable preparatory step to the offering of its meat to God;חידוש הקורבנות בעידן המודרני thus, the slaughter may be performed by any Jew, while the other stages of the sacrifice could only be performed by priests.Mishnah Zevachim 3:1
Hebrew Bible Laws and stories
Offerings are mentioned in the Book of Genesis and further detailed in the remaining four books of the Torah, which elaborate on their origins and history. Cain and Abel, Noah, Abraham, and Jacob offered sacrifices, as did the Israelites at Mount Sinai.
The Torah contains many laws about sacrifices. Different sacrifices are commanded for regular weekdays and Shabbat, and numerous Jewish holidays also feature their own specific offerings. Sacrificial procedures were described in detail. Sacrifices were only to be offered by the (), whom the Hebrew Bible describes as male descendants of Aaron who meet certain marital and ritual purity requirements.
The locations at which sacrificial offerings were made changed throughout Jewish history. Before building the Temple in Jerusalem, when the Israelites were in the desert, sacrifices were only to be offered in the Tabernacle. After the invasion of Canaan, sacrifices were also permitted at bamot in any location until the nation's enemies had been defeated and the people lived securely, after which sacrifices were supposed to be centralized again. However, in practice, the bamot were still used even during the secure monarchic period, and the Hebrew Bible's authors sometimes criticize Israelite kings for allowing this. Sacrificial offerings outside the Temple complex are recorded as having occurred at Beit Shemesh, Mizpah, Ramah, Gilgal, and Bethlehem, among other locations.
After the entry to Canaan, the main sacrificial centre was initially at Shiloh. Under Saul, the main center of sacrifice was Nob, though private offerings continued to be made at Shiloh. David created a new sacrificial center in Jerusalem at the threshing floor of Araunah (also known as Ornan), adjacent to Jerusalem, to which he moved the Ark.2 Samuel 6:17–18; 1 Chronicles 16:2, 40Encyclopaedia Judaica | second edition | vol 17 | sacrifice | pg 645 | Anson Rainey According to the Hebrew Bible, after the building of Solomon's Temple, sacrifices were only to be carried out there. After Solomon's Temple was destroyed, sacrifices were resumed when the Second Temple was built, until the Second Temple was also destroyed in 70 CE.Baruch A. Levine In the presence of the Lord: a study of cult and some cultic terms 1974, Page 99: "The Bible gives evidence of two modes of sacrifice in ancient Israel: 1) Altar sacrifices, of which at least some part was consumed by the altar fire, or was burnt as incense, and 2) Offerings placed before the deity and ..."
Attitudes Many of the Biblical prophets criticized those Israelites who brought sacrifices while continuing to violate God's will with immoral behavior. This criticism often took the form of scathing denunciations:
However, while rejecting the value of sacrifices accompanied by unjust behavior, the same prophets promised an eventual reconciliation between God and a more moral people of Israel, and proclaimed that the reestablishment of sacrifices would be a sign of this reconciliation.Jacob Chinitz, "Were the Prophets Opposed to Sacrifice?", Jewish Bible Quarterly 36 (April-June 2008):2 Thus sacrifices have a place in their visions of eventual redemption:
List of sacrifices This is an incomplete list of sacrifices mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.
Types of sacrifice include: Burnt offering (olah), entirely burnt on the altar Peace offering (shelamim), mostly eaten by humans Sin offering (hatat) Guilt offering (asham) Gift offering (minkhah), consisting of vegetable rather than animal products
Sacrifices offered on specific occasions include: Daily offerings (tamid) Mussaf (additional) offering for Shabbat and holidays The Passover sacrifice First Fruits on the holiday of Shavuot. Temple tax – The half-shekel tax for Temple needs.
Sacrifices connected to one's personal status or situation include: Offering following childbirth (; see Kinnim) The offering for an accused adulterous wife (Ordeal of the bitter water) Thank offering (todah) Offerings relevant to fulfillment of, or transgression of, the Nazirite vow. Offerings following cure from certain diseases and unusual bodily discharges.
Other sacrifices include: Dough offering (khallah) Voluntary offerings
Procedures connected to sacrifices include: (laying on hands) of sacrificial animals
Rabbinical interpretation
100 among the 613 commandments According to Maimonides, in Sefer Hamitzvot, about one hundred of the permanent 613 commandments based on the Torah, by rabbinical enumeration, directly concern sacrifices, excluding those commandments that concern the actual Temple and the priests themselves, of which there are about another fifty.
Instructions in Mishnah and Talmud The Mishnah and Talmud devote a very large section, known as a , to the study and analysis of , whereby all the detailed varieties of are enumerated and analyzed in great logical depth, such as () and (). Tractate Pesachim is largely devoted to discussing how to offer the Passover sacrifice. Tractate Yoma contains a detailed discussion of the Yom Kippur sacrifices, and there are sections in Seder Moed ('Order of Appointed Times') for the special offerings and Temple ritual for other major Jewish holidays. Tractate Shekalim discusses the annual half-shekel offering for Temple maintenance and governance, and tractate Nashim discusses the offerings made by Nazirites and suspected adulterers.
The Talmud provides extensive details not only on how to perform sacrifices but also on how to adjudicate difficult cases, such as what to do if a mistake is made and whether improperly performing one of the required ritual elements invalidates it. The Talmud explains how to roast the Passover offering, how to dash blood from different kinds of sacrifices upon the altar, how to prepare the incense, the regulatory code for the system of taxation that financed the priesthood and public sacrifices, and numerous other details.
Rationale and rabbinic commentary