For millennia, Chinese archery (, the art of Chinese archery) has played a pivotal role in Chinese society. In particular, archery featured prominently in ancient Chinese culture and philosophy: archery was one of the Six Noble Arts of the Zhou dynasty (1146–256 BCE); archery skill was a virtue for Chinese emperors; Confucius himself was an archery teacher; and Lie Zi (a Daoist philosopher) was an avid archer. During the Qing dynasty native Han archery became extinct instead Manchu archery was adoptedSix Arts of Ancient ChinaSelby (2000), pp. 52, 71, 145—148, 193, 240. Because the cultures associated with Chinese society spanned a wide geography and time range, the techniques and equipment associated with Chinese archery are diverse.Selby (2010), pp. 52—54. The improvement of firearms and other circumstances of 20th century China led to the demise of archery as a military and ritual practice, and for much of the 20th century only one traditional bow and arrow workshop remained.A Brief Chronology of Juyuanhao However, at the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a revival in interest among craftsmen looking to construct bows and arrows, as well as a practice technique in the traditional Chinese style.Article about the 2009 Chinese Traditional Archery SeminarNews coverage of the 2010 Chinese Traditional Archery Seminar
The practice of Chinese archery can be referred to as The Way of Archery (), a term derived from the 17th century Ming dynasty archery manuals written by Gao Ying (, born 1570, died ?).Tian and Ma (2015), p. 14. The use of (, the way) can also be seen in names commonly used for other East Asian styles, such as Japanese (kyūdō) and Korean (Gungdo) styles of archery.
Use and practice In historical times, Chinese people used archery for hunting, sport, rituals, examinations, and warfare.Selby (2003), p. 65.
Warfare China has a long history of mounted archery (shooting on horseback). Prior to the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), shooting from chariot was the primary form of battlefield archery. A typical arrangement was that each chariot would carry one driver, one halberdier, and one archer. Eventually, horseback archery replaced chariot archery during the Warring States period. The earliest recorded use of mounted archery by Han Chinese occurred with the reforms of King Wuling of Zhao in 307 BCE. Despite opposition from his nobles, Zhao Wuling's military reforms included the adoption of archery tactics of the bordering Xiongnu tribes, which meant shooting from horseback and eschewing Han robes in favor of nomadic-style jodhpurs.Selby (2000), pp. 174—175.
For infantry, the preferred projectile weapon was the crossbow, because shooting one required less training than shooting a bow. As early as 600 BC, Chinese crossbows employed sophisticated bronze trigger mechanisms, which allowed for very high draw weights.Selby (2000), pp. 162, 172—173. However, crossbow trigger mechanisms reverted to simpler designs during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE), presumably because the skill of constructing bronze trigger mechanisms was lost during the Mongolian Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE), or due to the increasing prominence of hand cannons in late Medieval Chinese warfare. Nonetheless, infantry archery using the bow and arrow still served important functions in training as well as naval battles.
Ritual and examination
In the Zhou dynasty (1146–256 BCE), nobles regularly held archery ritualshttp://www.univ-paris-diderot.fr/eacs-easl/DocumentsFCK/file/BOA14juin.pdf p. 1. which symbolized and reinforced order within the aristocratic hierarchy. The typical arrangement involved pairs of archers shooting at a target in a pavilion, accompanied by ceremonial music and wine. In these rituals, shooting with proper form and conduct was seen as important in order to hit the target.Selby (2000), pp. 76–77. Ritual archery served as a counterpoint to the typical portrayal of archers, who were often skillful but brash. Confucius himself was an archery teacher, and his own view on archery and archery rituals was that "A refined person has no use for competitiveness. Yet if he cannot avoid it, then let him compete through archery!"Selby (2000), pp. 75—76.
Although civil archery rituals fell out of favor after the Zhou dynasty, examinations inspired by the Zhou-era rituals became a regular part of the military syllabus in later dynasties such as the Han,Selby (2000), pp. 182—183. Tang,Selby (2000), pp. 193—196. Song,Selby (2000), pp. 248—251. MingSelby (2000), pp. 267—270. and Qing.Selby (2000), pp. 348—356. These exams provided merit-based means of selecting military officials. (Imperial examination#Military) In addition to archery on foot, the examinations also featured mounted archery, as well as strength testing with specially designed strength testing bows.Selby (2000), pp. 352.
Football and archery were practiced by the Ming Emperors. Equestrianism and archery were favorite pastimes of He Suonan who served in the Yuan and Ming militaries under Hongwu. Archery towers were built by Zhengtong Emperor at the Forbidden City. Archery towers were built on the city walls of Xi'an erected by Hongwu. Lake Houhu was guarded by archers in Nanjing during the Ming dynasty.https://aacs.ccny.cuny.edu/2009conference/Wenxian_Zhang.pdf p. 165.
Math, calligraphy, literature, equestrianism, archery, music, and rites were the Six Arts.
At the Guozijian, law, math, calligraphy, equestrianism, and archery were emphasized by the Ming Hongwu Emperor in addition to Confucian classics and also required in the Imperial Examinations. Archery and equestrianism were added to the exam by Hongwu in 1370 like how archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the 武舉 College of War in 1162 by the Song Emperor Xiaozong. The area around the Meridian Gate of Nanjing was used for archery by guards and generals under Hongwu.
The Imperial exam included archery. Archery on horseback was practiced by the Han Chinese living near the frontier. Wang Ju's writings on archery were followed during the Ming and Yuan and the Ming developed new methods of archery. Jinling Tuyong showed archery in Nanjing during the Ming. Contests in archery were held in the capital for Garrison of Guard soldiers who were handpicked.
Equestrianism and archery were favored activities of Zhu Di (the Yongle Emperor) and his second son Zhu Gaoxu.
The Yongle Emperor's eldest son and successor the Hongxi Emperor was disinterested in military matters but was accomplished in foot archery.
Archery and equestrianism were frequent pastimes by the Zhengde Emperor. He practiced archery and horseriding with eunuchs. Tibetan Buddhist monks, Muslim women and musicians were obtained and provided to Zhengde by his guard Ch'ien Ning, who acquainted him with the ambidextrous archer and military officer Chiang Pin. An accomplished military commander and archer was demoted to commoner status on a wrongful charge of treason was the Prince of Lu's grandson in 1514.
Archery competitions, equestrianism and calligraphy were some of the pastimes of Wanli Emperor.
Archery and equestrianism were practiced by Li Zicheng.
Hunting Hunting was an important discipline in Chinese archery, and scenes of hunting using horseback archery feature prominently in Chinese artwork.Selby (2010), p. 60.Iconography of Mounted Archery of Western Han Dynasty
Aside from using normal bows and arrows, two distinct subgenres of hunting archery emerged: fowling with a pellet bow, and waterfowling with a tethered arrow. Shooting with a pellet bow involved using a light bow with a pouch on the bowstring designed to shoot a stone pellet. The discipline of shooting the pellet bow was allegedly the precursor to shooting with the bow and arrow, and the practice of pellet shooting persisted for many centuries. By contrast, hunting with a tethered arrow (which was meant to ensnare rather than pierce the target) was featured in early paintings, but seemed to have died out before the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE).Selby (2000), pp. 178—182.
Decline
Military use of firearms began in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE), and general use of gunpowder weapons as early as the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE). Despite this adoption, bows and crossbows had remained an integral part of the military arsenal because of the slow firing rate and lack of reliability in early firearms. This situation changed near the end of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911 CE), when the availability of reliable firearms made archery less effective as a military weapon. As such, the Guangxu Emperor abolished archery from the military exam syllabus in 1901.
Between the collapse of Imperial China in 1911 and beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), there was a short-lived effort to revive traditional archery practice. After World War II, traditional bow makers were able to continue their craft until the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), when circumstances forced workshops such as Ju Yuan Hao to suspend the manufacture of traditional Chinese bows.Selby (2000), p. 386.
Modern reconstruction and revival In 1998, Ju Yuan Hao resumed Manchu bow making and until recently was the only active workshop constructing bows and arrows in the traditional Chinese style.Translated by Stephen Selby (1999). The History of Ju Yuan Hao Bowmakers of Beijing.
However, with the dedicated efforts of craftsmen, researchers, promoters and enthusiasts, the practice of traditional Chinese archery has been experiencing a revival in the 21st century even native Han styles have been revived slowly replacing the Manchu style. Starting in 2009, they have established an annual Chinese Traditional Archery Seminar. Through new understanding and reconstruction of these archery practices, their goal is to create a new living tradition for Chinese archery.Asian Traditional Archery Research Network Hanfu enthusiasts have also revived the traditional archery ritual.
Technique Many variations in archery technique evolved throughout Chinese history, so it is difficult to completely specify a canonical Chinese style. The Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) had at least 7 archery manuals in circulation (including a manual by General Li Guang), and the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE) had at least 14 different schools of archery and crossbow theory, and the Qing dynasty saw the publication of books from over 14 different schools of archery.Selby (2000), pp. 119—120, 271, 360. The commonality among all these styles is that they placed great emphasis on mental focus and concentration.Stephen Selby (1999).Perfecting the Mind and the Body.
The style of drawing that is most commonly associated with Chinese archery is the thumb draw, which was also the predominant draw method for other Asian peoples such as the Mongolians, Tibetans, Koreans, Indians, Turks and Persians; with the famous exception being the Japanese draw technique for Kyūdō.Koppedrayer (2002), pp. 7—9. However, during earlier periods of Chinese history (e.g., Zhou dynasty), the 3-finger draw was common at the same time that the thumb draw was popular.E.T.C. Werner (1972). Chinese Weapons. Ohara Publications. p. 59. Nie Chongyi (10th century CE). Xin Ding San Li Tu.
Furthermore, the various styles of Chinese archery offered different advice on other aspects of shooting technique. For example: how to position the feet, what height to anchor the arrow, how to position the bow hand finger, whether to apply tension to the bow hand, whether to let the bow spin in the bow hand after release, as well as whether to extend the draw arm after release. Stephen Selby (1997). The Archery Tradition of China. Translated by Stephen Selby (1998).Qi Ji-guang's Archery Method. Cheng Ziyi (1638). Illustration from the Wu Bei Yao Lue (‘Outline of Military Preparedness’ : The Theory of Archery). Ji Jian (1679). Guan Shi Xin Zhuang.