Excitation-transfer theory, based heavily on psychology, psychophysiology, and biochemistry, is a psychological theory that originated in the field of social psychology and effects studies pertaining to communication. In the context of communication, this theory suggests that the emotional response to a particular message or stimulus can be influenced by the residual, or remaining, arousal from a previous experience. Excitation-transfer theory was first proposed by Dolf Zillmann in the 1970s to explain the emotional and physiological processes involved in the transfer of arousal from one situation to another.
This theory, which applies elements of the three-factor theory of emotions, states that left over, or residual, excitation from the initial stimulus will amplify the excitatory response or reaction to another stimulus, regardless of the hedonic valences or potential experience one has had with the emotions felt from the stimuli. Hedonic valence, in particular, refers to the emotional tone or affective quality of an experience, stimulus, or object. In addition, the excitation-transfer process is not limited to a single emotion, as the initial, residual, and excitatory emotional reactions do not have to be related.
The process of excitation-transfer occurs when the feelings of arousal, or another emotion of excitation, that stem from one stimulus is converted, or misattributed, into a different action or behavior due to a secondary stimulus. In addition, the transfer of one emotion to another will result in the second emotion directed toward the additional stimulus being felt more intensely than if the emotion caused by the first stimulus was not felt. Components including dispositional and excitatory emotional responses related to the three-factor theory of emotions are also correlated to the excitation-transfer process.
Developed research and applied studies in which this theory has been tested has led to the development of specific conditions required for the excitation-transfer process to occur. These conditions include time, shift of attention and hedonic assimilation. Examples of how the theory is applied are also provided.
In addition, research has also found limitations of excitation-transfer theory, which are noted as areas requiring further research.
History Dolf Zillmann began developing excitation-transfer theory in the late 1960s through the early 1970s and continued to refine it into the 21st century. The theory itself is based largely on Clark Hull's notion of residual excitation (i.e., drive theory), Stanley Schachter's two factor theory of emotion, and the application of the three-factor theory of emotions. Specifically, Zillmann noticed a fault within the two factor theory of emotion regarding the lack of information that addressed the relationship between cognitive behaviors and cues within the theory.
In these theories working as the starting point, excitation-transfer theory is able to make assumptions regarding how the transition of one emotion to another cognitively occurs. One of the assumptions states that excitation responses are, for the most part, ambiguous and are differentiated only by what emotions the brain assigns to them in that specific instance. This theory also helps to explain the variability of emotional arousal (including how it is possible for fear to be transferred into relief, anger into delight, etc.) and how the reaction to one stimulus can intensify the reaction to another.
During the development of excitation-transfer theory, the public became concerned about the potential real-world effects violent media content could have on consumers. As a result, excitation-transfer theory became one of the dominant theoretical foundations used for predicting, testing, and explaining the potential effects of media such as violent films, pornography, and music onto the population.
Furthermore, Zillmann also expressed that excitation transfer is not limited to face-to-face communication stimuli, as the process can occur from an array of stimuli including mediated messages. Research focusing on this theory has found a correlation between cognitive levels of arousal and behavioral actions as a result of the media being consumed.
Three-factor theory of emotions The three-factor theory of emotions works as a framework of application that allows excitation-transfer theory to categorize the emotional behaviors experienced through the excitation-transfer process, which include dispositional, excitatory and experimental.
The three-factory theory of emotions suggests that physiological arousal comes before and leads into both outward expressions of emotions (dispositional) and the subjective experience of emotions (experiential). The components of the theory include:
Dispositional This pertains to the skeletal-motor behaviors, including facial expressions, body language, or any other outward behaviors that convey emotions, which are associated with the excitation-transfer process. Excitatory This factor refers to the physiological arousal associated with emotional experiences that include an increased heart rate and the physical release of adrenaline. Experiential This component involves the cognitive appraisal of emotions, which can include a person's feelings, thoughts and personal interpretation of an emotional experience. The way in which excitation-transfer theory applies the concepts of the three-factor theory of emotions are that it highlights the association of physiological arousal, dispositional behaviors, and subjective experiences across different emotional contexts. In addition, the utilization of the three-factory theory of emotions provides insight regarding how dynamic and influential emotional, arousing responses can be when transferred from one situation to another.
Key concepts Three major concepts of the excitation-transfer theory consist of:
Arousal Arousal refers to a heightened state of physiological and psychological activity. It can be triggered by various stimuli, including emotional experiences (such as excitement or fear), physical activities (such as exercise), or intense situations (such as viewing thrilling media content).
Excitation Excitation, within the excitation-transfer framework, refers to the residual physiological arousal left over from a previous event or experience. Furthermore, the lingering feelings of arousal can persist for a while after the initial stimulus has ended.
Transfer Transfer occurs when the residual arousal, or excitation, from one event influences the emotional response to a following and seemingly unrelated event. This implies that the emotional intensity experienced in the first situation would be carried over and effect the reactions felt toward the second situation. The arousal transferred through this process can also amplify the emotional reaction to the new stimulus.
Transfer conditions The excitation-transfer process requires the presence of these three conditions:
The second stimulus should occur before the complete decay of residual excitation from the first stimulus, which is also referred to as temporal proximity. In other words, the remaining arousal felt from the initial stimulus needs to be present to some degree when the individual is exposed to the second stimulus. After exposure to the second stimulus, the individual experiencing the excitation misattributes their emotions of excitation onto the second stimulus. Misattribution of excitation is a cognitive process where the individual mistakenly attributes the heightened physiological arousal to the second stimulus rather than recognizing its origin in the initial stimulus. This misattribution also contributes to the intensification of emotional responses to the second stimulus. The individual has not reached an excitatory threshold before exposure to the second stimulus. In physiological arousal, the excitation-transfer process may only be able to occur if a certain limit, or threshold, of emotional response has not been met. In the case where an individual has already reached this emotional threshold before encountering the second stimulus, the excitation-transfer process may be less likely to occur. Two additional components of excitation-transfer theory consist of: The two arousing or emotional excitations being felt, one from the first stimulus and the other from the second stimulus, do not have to be related in any way. The second feeling of arousing or emotional excitation will not last long after its occurrence. Zillmann estimated the secondary emotion only remaining for a few minutes after it is felt.
Requirements The requirements for the occurrence of excitation-transfer, particularly related to time, shift of attention, and hedonic assimilation, are important aspects of understanding how physiological arousal from one stimulus may affect the response to a secondary stimulus. Together, these factors provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved in excitation transfer.
Time Time plays an essential, yet complex role in excitation transfer theory. Specific terms used to explain the importance of time in the emotional transfer process include:
Temporal proximity The concept of time in this theory emphasizes that the transfer of excitation is typically more effective when there is a relatively short time interval between the initial arousal-inducing event and the subsequent stimulus.
Recency of arousal The recency of the arousal is crucial in the sense that if the initial arousal is recent, the physiological activation it is associated with is more likely to be present during the encounter with the subsequent stimulus. This recency contributes to the transfer of excitation from one situation to another.l
Temporal decay As time elapses, the physiological arousal from the initial event tends to disappear. The theory suggests that the transfer effect is most potent when the residual arousal is still present during the encounter with the second stimulus.
Response latency Response latency refers to the time it takes for an individual to respond to a stimulus. In content of this theory, response latency may be able to enhance the likelihood of the excitation-transfer process occurring. For example, a short response latency may enhance the likelihood of the transfer of excitatory emotions.
Excitation delay Excitation delay is the amount of time in between the initial arousal and the creation of the emotional response. This factor can influence the emotional transfer process, as a shorter excitation delay may result in a more effective transfer of arousal to a subsequent stimulus.
Time of recovery
Time of recovery refers to the duration of time it takes for physiological arousal to return to the baseline, or initially felt, emotion after experiencing the stimuli. To elaborate, a high time of recovery would imply that the physiological arousal persists for a longer timeframe without returning to the baseline emotion. This would imply that there is higher potential for the excitation-transfer process to take place and influence following situations. In addition, a low time of recovery would suggest a quicker return to the baseline emotion. This would diminish the potential for the excitation-transfer process to take place and influence preceding situations.
Shift of attention For excitation-transfer theory, attentional shift guides the cognitive processing and selective attention that contribute to the transfer of emotions. Specific terms used to explain the importance of the shift of attention in the emotional process include: