Xiang Yu (),12th month of the 5th year of Liu Bang's reign (including his tenure as King of Han), per vol.11 of Zizhi Tongjian. The month correpsonds to 29 Dec 203 BC to 27 Jan 202 BC in the proleptic Julian calendar. born Xiang Ji, was a Chinese warlord who founded and led the short-lived kingdom-state of Western Chu during the interregnum period between the Qin and Han dynasties known as the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC).
A nobleman of the former state of Chu, Xiang Yu rebelled against the Qin dynasty under the command of his uncle Xiang Liang, and was granted the title of "Duke of Lu" () by King Huai II of the restoring Chu state in 208 BC. The following year, he led an outnumbered Chu army to victory at the Battle of Julu against the Qin armies led by Zhang Han. After the fall of Qin, Xiang Yu divided the country into a federacy of Eighteen Kingdoms, among which he was self-titled as the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" () and ruled a vast region spanning central and eastern China, with Pengcheng as his capital.
Although a formidable warrior and tactician, Xiang Yu was poor in both diplomacy and strategy, especially after dismissing his own adviser Fan Zeng. He was later outcompeted by his main rival Liu Bang during the massive civil war among the rebel kingdoms, which concluded with his eventual defeat and suicide in a last stand at the Battle of Gaixia. The demise of Xiang Yu allowed Liu Bang to subsequently become the founding emperor of the newly established Han dynasty, which is widely regarded as a golden age in Chinese history.
Names and titles Xiang Yu's clan name was Xiang () and his family name was Ji (), while his given name was Ji (), and his courtesy name was Yu (). He is best known as Xiang Yu (). Xiang Yu is referred to as the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" () or simply "Hegemon-King" (; also translated as "Conqueror-King").
Family background There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the House of Mi (), the royal family of the Chu state. His ancestors were granted Xiang County (; around present-day Shenqiu County, Henan) as their fief by the king of Chu and had since adopted Xiang as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state and his family had served in the Chu army for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather, , was a general who was killed in action while leading Chu forces to resist an invasion by the Qin state in 223 BC.
Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC during the late Warring States period when the Qin state started conquering the other six major states. According to the descendants of the Xiang family living in Suqian, Jiangsu, Xiang Yu's father was Xiang Chao (), Xiang Yan's eldest son. Xiang Yu was raised by his uncle, Xiang Liang, because his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state unified China and established the Qin dynasty.
Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one eye just like the mythical Emperor Shun and Duke Wen of Jin. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi, or approximately , and possessed great physical strength as he could lift a ding.
Early life In his younger days, Xiang Yu was instructed in scholarly arts and swordsmanship but he did not manage to master what he was taught, and his uncle Xiang Liang was not very satisfied with him. Xiang Yu said, "Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat thousands of enemies." After hearing that, his uncle tried to teach him military strategy, but he stopped learning after he had grasped the main concepts. Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, so he gave up and let Xiang Yu decide his own future.
When Xiang Yu grew older, Xiang Liang killed someone so they fled to the Wu region to evade the authorities. Around the time, Qin Shi Huang was on an inspection tour in that area. As Xiang Yu and his uncle watched the emperor's procession pass by, Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him." Shocked by what his nephew said, Xiang Liang immediately covered Xiang Yu's mouth with his hand. After this incident, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew in a different light.
Revolt against the Qin dynasty
In 209 BC, several uprisings erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty. Some of these rebel groups claimed to be restoring the former six states which were conquered by the Qin state. , the Qin-appointed administrator of Kuaiji Commandery, wanted to rebel against the Qin government as well, so he invited the Xiangs to meet him and discuss. Xiang Yu and Xiang Liang lured Yin Tong into a trap and killed him; Xiang Yu killed hundreds of Yin Tong's men during the battle. After that, Xiang Liang started his own rebellion and rallied about 8,000 men to support him, declaring himself the new Administrator of Kuaiji and appointing Xiang Yu as a general. Xiang Liang's rebel group grew in size until it was between 60,000 and 70,000 men. In 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed Mi Xin as King Huai II of Chu to rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin dynasty and restore the former Chu state. At this time, King Huai II was merely a puppet ruler as the Xiangs still controlled the Chu rebel group's armed forces. During this time, Xiang Yu gained a reputation for being a competent general and formidable warrior from participating in battles against Qin forces.
Later that year, after Xiang Liang was killed at Dingtao against Qin forces, control over the Chu rebel group's armed forces fell into the hands of King Huai II and his close aides. In the winter of 208 BC, the Zhao rebel group led by requested for assistance from the Chu rebel group while they were under attack by Qin forces in Handan. King Huai II gave Xiang Yu the title "Duke of Lu" () and appointed him as second-in-command to Song Yi, who had been tasked with leading reinforcements to help the Zhao rebel group. At the same time, King Huai II sent Liu Bang to attack Guanzhong, the heartland of the Qin dynasty, promising both Xiang Yu and Liu Bang that whoever entered Guanzhong first would be made King of Guanzhong.
Battle of Julu
Song Yi and Xiang Yu headed to Anyang, some distance away from Julu Commandery, where the Zhao forces had retreated to after their defeat at Handan. At Anyang, Song Yi ordered the troops to make camp for 46 days, refusing to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to advance further. Frustrated at Song Yi's inaction, Xiang Yu took him by surprise during a meeting, accused him of treason, and killed him. Song Yi's other subordinates feared Xiang Yu so they did not stop him from becoming their acting commander. Xiang Yu then sent a messenger to report the situation to King Huai II, who reluctantly approved his command.
In 207 BC, Xiang Yu advanced towards Julu Commandery, sending Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead a 20,000-strong vanguard to cross the river and attack the Qin forces, while he followed behind with the rest of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations in order to force his men to choose between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days and perishing with no hope of turning back. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Chu forces scored a decisive victory against the 300,000-strong Qin army after nine engagements. After the battle, some other rebel groups came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration. When Xiang Yu met them at the entrance of his camp, the other rebel leaders were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did not dare to look up at him.
Meanwhile, the Qin general Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin to the Qin capital Xianyang to seek reinforcements and supplies. However, the Qin government, which was under Zhao Gao's control, dismissed the request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin on his way back to Julu Commandery, but Sima Xin survived and returned to report the situation to Zhang Han. Left with no choice, Zhang Han and his 200,000 Qin soldiers surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu did not trust the 200,000 surrendered Qin soldiers and saw them as a liability, so he ordered them to be buried alive at Xin'an (; present-day Yima, Henan) while sparing Zhang Han and his deputies Sima Xin and Dong Yi.
Feast at Hong Gate
After his victory at the Battle of Julu, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion of the Guanzhong region, the heartland of the Qin dynasty. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin emperor Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang, bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. By the time Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops and knew that Liu Bang had beat him in the race to Guanzhong. Cao Wushang (), one of Liu Bang's subordinates, sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu Bang would be King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II's earlier promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu Bang's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At the time, Xiang Yu had about 400,000 troops while Liu Bang had only a quarter of that number.
Acting on Fan Zeng's advice, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a feast at Swan Goose Gate and plotted to assassinate Liu Bang during the feast. However, Xiang Yu later listened to his uncle Xiang Bo and decided to spare Liu Bang, allowing Liu Bang to escape halfway during the feast.
In 206 BC, Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang, where he executed Ziying and his family, and ordered the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.
Acting against his followers' advice to remain in Guanzhong and continue with conquering the territories held by the other rebel groups, Xiang Yu was insistent on returning to his home territory. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamorous outfits. Who would notice that?" One of his followers remarked, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing." Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.
Division of the empire
In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu promoted King Huai II, the nominal ruler of the Chu rebel group, to a more "honourable" title – Emperor Yi of Chu – and divided the territories of the former Qin dynasty into the Eighteen Kingdoms. He declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang and Chu states, with his kingdom's capital at Pengcheng (; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu). The remaining kingdoms were granted to, among others, Xiang Yu's subordinates, some leaders of the other rebel groups, and the three surrendered Qin generals. The Guanzhong region, which was rightfully Liu Bang's according to the earlier promise by King Huai II, was instead given to the three surrendered Qin generals and collectively known as the Three Qins. Liu Bang, on the other hand, was relocated to the remote Hanzhong and given the title "King of Han".