Kabyle () or Kabylian (; native name: ) is a Berber language spoken by the Kabyle people in the north and northeast of Algeria. It is spoken primarily in Kabylia.
Estimating the number of Berber speakers is very difficult and figures are often contested. A 2004 estimate was that 9.4% of the Algerian population spoke Kabyle. The number of diaspora speakers has been estimated at one million.
Classification
Kabyle is one of the Northern Berber languages, a branch of the Berber language family within Afroasiatic. It is believed to have broken off very early from Proto-Berber, although after the Zenaga language did so.'The Saharan Berber diaspora and the southern frontiers of Vandal and Byzantine North Africa', J. Conant and S. Stevens (eds), North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam, ca. 500 – ca. 800 (Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Symposia and Colloquia. Washington, D.C.) According to Kossmann (2020), Kabyle appears to be quite distinct. In several respects, it shares certain linguistic innovations with the western Moroccan dialect group. However, it is unclear whether these similarities result from an earlier expansion of that group into Algeria, which was later interrupted by the spread of Zenati dialects, or whether they represent independent, parallel developments.
Distribution Geographical distribution
Kabyle Berber is native to Kabylia. It is present in seven Algerian districts. Approximately one-third of Algerians are Berber-speakers, clustered mostly near Algiers, in Kabylian and Shawi, but with some communities related to Kabyle in the west (Shenwa languages), east and south of the country. The populations of Béjaïa (Bgayet), Bouïra (Tubirett) and Tizi Ouzou (Tizi Wezzu) provinces are in majority Kabyle-speaking. In addition, Kabyle is mainly spoken in the provinces of Boumerdès, and as well as in Bordj Bou Arréridj, Jijel, and in Algiers where it coexists with Algerian Arabic.
Kabyle Berber is also spoken as a native language among the Algerian Kabyle-descended diaspora in European and North American cities (mainly France). It is estimated that half of Kabyles live outside the Kabylian region.
Number of speakers Estimates on the number of Kabyle speakers in the region vary widely, with different dates and data given for different points of time. As such the number of Kabyle speakers varies considerably depending on different sources given. French ethnologist estimates four million Kabyle speakers in 2001 in Algeria. According to the International Encyclopedia of Linguistics there were million speakers in Kabylia in 2003 out of million worldwide. In 2004, Canadian linguist estimated that there were million Kabyle speakers in Algeria (9.4% of the total Algerian population) and in France. Salem Chaker estimated there were 5.5 million speakers in 2004, including 3 to 3.5 in Kabylia. The Encyclopædia Universalis gives 7 million Kabyle speakers. The French Ministry of Culture estimated there were one million Kabyle speakers in France in 2013. Linguist Matthias Brenzinger estimates the number of Kabyle speakers in Algeria at between 2.5 and 3 million in 2015. Bruce Maddy-Weitzman's 2018 estimate is more than 5 million Kabyle speakers in Kabylie. Linguist Asya Pereltsvaig gives 5.6 million Kabyle speakers worldwide in 2020, mostly in Algeria. In 2021, Amina Mettouchi, professor of Berber linguistics, estimated the number of speakers at five million worldwide and more than three million in Algeria. In 2022, according to Ethnologue there were million speakers worldwide, including million in Algeria.
Dialects
Many identify two dialects: Greater Kabylie (west) and Lesser Kabylie (east), but the reality is more complex than that, Kabyle dialects constitute a dialect continuum that can be divided into four main dialects (from west to east):
Far-western: villages such as Tizi-Ghennif, Boghni and Draa el Mizan. Western: villages such as At Menguellat, At Yiraten, At Aïssi, At Yanni, Eastern: Eastern-West: villages such as At Mlikeche, Eastern-center: At Aïdel, At Khiar Eastern-East: villages such as At Sliman. Far-eastern: villages such as Aokas, Melbou, At Smail. Also known as Tasaḥlit and considered as a separate language by some according to Ethnologue. Mutual intelligibility with Far-western is difficult to absent.
+ Phonological differences Far-western Western Eastern Far-eastern West East Gemination of /w/ bbʷ bbʷ ggʷ ββ wwAssimilation of /n/ + /w/ bbʷ bbʷ ggʷ nw Labialization ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗Assimilation of /n/ + /y/ gg gg gg yy y affricates /ts/ and /dz/ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ ṭ ṭ
+ Grammatical differences Far-western Western Eastern Far-eastern West East Aokas Verb-framing with n ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ Possessive pronouns (ex: 3rd m) -nnes -is, -ines -is, -ines -is Aorist preverb ad ad ad ad ad di
Lexical differences
With the exception of the far-eastern dialect, much of the vocabulary of Kabyle is common across its dialects, though some lexical differences exist, e.g. the word dream in English (from west to east): bargu, argu, argu, bureg.
Status and usage
Multilingualism and language shift Almost all Berber speakers are multilingual, in Arabic and often also in French. Kabyle is still strong in villages but urban Kabyles in Algeria are increasingly shifting to Arabic and diaspora Kabyles to the surrounding language. A 2013 study found that 54% of Kabyles living in Oran spoke Arabic to their siblings.
Official status
After the 2001–02 widespread Kabyle protests known as the Black Spring, the Berber (Amazigh) language (with all its Algerian dialects and varieties) was recognized as a 'national language' in the 2002 Algerian Constitution, but not as an 'official language' until 2016 after a long campaign by activists. French is not recognized in any legal document of Algeria but enjoys a de facto position of an official language as it is used in every Algerian official administration or institution, at all levels of the government, sometimes much more than Arabic.
The Berber (Amazigh) language faces an unfavourable environment, despite a public radio in Algeria (Channel II, which dates back to 1925), as well as a public TV channel in Morocco (Channel IV or Tamazight TV). Since private ownership of TV channels is illegal in Algeria, Kabyles have launched a private Kabyle speaking TV channel, called Berbère Television, that broadcasts from France. There is no Kabyle newspaper. Some Algerian newspapers such as offer a small Kabyle section.
In 1994, Kabyle pupils and students boycotted Algerian schools for a year, demanding the officialization of Berber, leading to the symbolic creation of the "Haut commissariat à l'amazighité" (HCA) in 1995. Berber was subsequently taught as a non-compulsory language in Berber speaking areas. The course being optional, few people attend. The Kabyle school boycott also resulted in the first recognition of Amazigh as a national language in November 1996.
President Bouteflika has frequently stated that "Amazigh (the Berber language) will never be an official language, and if it has to be a national language, it must be submitted to a referendum". In 2005, President Bouteflika, stated that "there is no country in the world with two official languages" and "this will never be the case of Algeria". Nevertheless, after four decades of pacific struggle, riots, strikes, and social mobilization, including the Berber spring (1980, riots and strikes in the Kabylie region of Tizi Ouzou, Bouira and Bejaïa, as well as Algiers) and the Black Spring in 2001, President Bouteflika and his government recognized Amazigh (Berber) as a "national language" for the second time through a 2002 constitutional amendment.
In February 2016, the Algerian parliament passed a constitutional amendment that made Amazight an official language alongside Arabic.
Phonology
The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Kabyle.
Vowels Kabyle has three phonemic vowels:
+ Kabyle vowel phonemesFrontCentralBackClose Open
is used to write the epenthetic schwa vowel which occurs frequently in Kabyle. Historically, it is thought to be the result of a pan-Berber reduction or merger of three other vowels.
The phonetic realization of the vowels, especially , is influenced by the character of the surrounding consonants; emphatic consonants invite a more open realization of the vowel, e.g. aẓru = 'stone' vs. amud = 'seed'. Often /a, i, u/ are realized as .
Consonants + Kabyle consonant phonemes Labial Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-geal Glottal Plosive/Affricate (t ) ṭ tt č (k ) k q q (b ) b (d ) zz ǧ (g ) g (q ) Fricative f t s ṣ c c k k x x ḥ h b d ḍ z ẓ j j g g ɣ ɣ ɛ Nasal m n Trill r ṛ Approximant l l y w
Assimilation In the Kabyle language there are various accents which are the result of assimilations (these accents are generally divided into western and eastern Kabyle). Some of these assimilations are present among all Kabyle "dialects" and some not. These assimilations are not noted in writing, such as:
Axxam n wergaz ("the house of the man") is pronounced either "axxam n wergaz", "axxam bb wergaz" or "axxam pp wergaz". (N+W=BB) D taqcict ("it's a girl") is pronounced "tsaqcict". (D+T=TS) Here is a list of some of these assimilations: D/T+T=TS, N+W=BB/PP, I+Y=IG.
Gemination affects the quality of certain consonants, turning semivowels and fricatives into stops; in particular, geminated ɣ becomes qq, geminated y becomes gg, and geminated w becomes bb.
Fricatives vs. stops Kabyle is mostly composed of fricatives, phonemes which are originally stops in other Berber languages, but in writing there is no difference between fricatives and stops. Below is a list of fricatives vs. stops and when they are pronounced (note that gemination turns fricatives into stops).
Consonant B D G K T Fricative Stop Is a stop after m l,n b,j,r,z,ɛ f,b,s,l,r,n,ḥ,c,ɛ l,m,n Is a stop in the words(and their derivatives) ngeb, ngeḥ, ngeẓwer, angaẓ, ngedwi, nages, ngedwal
Writing system
The most ancient Berber writings were written in the Libyco-Berber script, mostly from Numidian and Roman times. This script was an abjad, and is not yet completely deciphered today. Deciphered scripts are mostly funerary, following a simple formula of "X son of Y" (X u Y) which is still used to this day in the Kabyle language. Such writings have been found in Kabylie (also known as Kabylia) and continue to be discovered by archeologists. The Tifinagh script of the Tuaregs was a direct continuation of this earlier script.
The Libyco-Berber alphabet disappeared in the region of Kabylia by the sixth century, when Latin became the official and administrative language in North Africa, as in the rest of the former Roman empire.
Kabyle became a mostly spoken language after the Arabic conquest of North Africa, and while many examples of the Kabyle language written in a form of Berber-Arabic script survive, the number of Kabyle texts was relatively much smaller than those written in other Berber languages such as Shilha, Mozabite, and Nafusi.
The first French–Kabyle dictionary was compiled by a French ethnologist in the 18th century. It was written in Latin script with an orthography based on that of French.
However, the Kabyle language really became a written language again in the beginning of the 19th century. Under French influence, Kabyle intellectuals began to use the Latin script. "Tamacahutt n wuccen" by Brahim Zellal was one of the first Kabyle books written using this alphabet.