The history of military nutrition in the United States can be roughly divided into seven historical eras, from the founding of the country to the present day, based on advances in food research technology and methodologies for the improvement of the overall health and nutritional status of U.S. military service members. Through the research and guidance of medical and military professionals, rations and packaging have been consistently and dramatically improved.

General history The first formal institution for U.S. military nutrition research was created in 1917, when the Surgeon-General's office established a Food Division for "safeguarding the nutritional interests of the Army."Murlin, J.R., Miller, C.W. "Preliminary Results of Nutritional Surveys in United States Army Camps". American Journal of Public Health. 9(6). Currently, the U.S. military nutrition research is presided over by the DoD Combat Feeding and Research Program (CFREP), providing a research, technology and engineering base for all combat feeding systems. The Army is the executive agent for the Combat Research and Engineering Board (CFREB; formerly known as the Food and Nutrition Research and Engineering Board).Department of Defense Directive 3235.2. May 21, 2004 Chaired by the office of the director, defense research and engineering, the CFREB includes representatives from Army Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps and the Defense Logistics Agency.

The Military Nutrition Division at the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM) has been at the forefront of Military Nutrition Research since 1986, and addresses physical, physiological and nutritional requirements of modern military personnel.

Eras

1775–1917

In 1775, the Continental Congress stipulated that all enlisted persons of the Continental Army should receive peas, beans, or vegetables and one pint of milk per man in addition to their provision of meat and bread.Journals of the Continental Congress, November 4, 1775 For the time, this was a significant recognition of the need to include fresh food in the military diet. As food preservation and refrigeration techniques had not been perfected at the time (late 18th century), perishables were rarely delivered in edible condition to soldiers in the field. Without fresh fruits and vegetables, many soldiers suffered death or illness by such diseases as scurvy. As a result, the overall health and morale of American soldiers suffered.Rush, Benjamin (1777). "Directions for preserving the health of soldiers" The Pennsylvania Packet, no. 284. Gillett, Mary C. (1981), "The Army Medical Department, 1775–1818", Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army.

Aware of the situation, General George Washington wrote a letter to Congress suggesting new personnel be hired to correct issues in the Commissary Department.George Washington to Continental Congress Conference Committee, January 29, 1778 Congress then directed the Board of War to supply sauerkraut, vegetables, vinegar, beer and cider to troops.Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. Friday, March 13, 1778. p. 248–252.

A few decades later, in response to a 12,000 franc award offered by Napoleon Bonaparte for the creation of a method to preserve food for armies, Nicholas Appert developed a method to preserve food in airtight bottles. Samples of Appert's preserved foods were sent to sea with Napoleon's men and the food remained fresh for several months. Ten years later, Pierre Durand, a British merchant, patented a similar method using tin-coated canisters, and by 1813, the British Army and Navy were supplied with food preserved in tins.

During the American Civil War, conditions prevented adequate supply and delivery of all ration components to troops."Food and Rations." Gale Library of Daily Life: American Civil War. Ed. Steven E. Woodworth. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2008. p15–18. Typhoid, diarrhea, and dysentery, easily spread by contamination of water and food supplies, were widespread, and fatalities caused by these diseases were common.CivilWarHome.com. "Medical Care, Battle Wounds, and Disease."

In 1861, the Army of Virginia published Directions for Cooking by Troops in Camp and Hospital, Nightengale, F. Directions for Cooking by Troops in Camp and Hospital. J.W. Randolph. Richmond, VA. 1861. an Army camp cooking manual written by Florence Nightingale. The recipes emphasized meat and milk for protein and whole grains, fruits, and vegetables for carbohydrates. The first US Family Food Guide (1916) was published 35 years later, with essentially similar recommendations.

In 1861, John Ordronaux's Hints on the Preservation of Health in the ArmiesOrdronaux, J. Hints on Health in Armies for the Use of Volunteer Officers. 2nd Ed. D. Van Nostrand, New York, NY. 1863. was published containing the first known dietary guidelines for soldiers, identifying priorities of an effective military diet.

After the Civil War, the 1892 ration was developed, providing for fresh meat, fish and vegetables. Although advances had been made in food processing, preservation, storage and refrigeration techniques, food often spoiled over long distances or in warm climates, as these techniques had not been perfected. During the Spanish–American War, many soldiers suffered serious illness as the result of rotten or fermented food. Also in 1892, Captain Charles Woodruff conducted the first military nutrition survey, and earned the title "foremost student of the diet of the American soldier".Thompson, W. Gilman. "Modern Dietetic Principles: Their Practical Application." Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. Vol. 162, Iss. 2 Through his research, he observed gradual improvement in the quality of Army rations and noted the need for further research and development to ensure the continuation of this trend.

While rations continued to improve, broad distribution of perishable foods did not occur until World War I, when technological advances made it possible to supply camps with fresh meats, eggs, dairy products and vegetables. While overseas, American soldiers consumed the generally adequate Pershing garrison rations, which lacked dairy and vegetable products. Problems such as these were overcome later with the development of the "New Army Ration".

1917–1941 Facing food shortages in both military and civilian populations during World War I, it was important to address reports of food wastage at military training camps. The Division of Food and Nutrition of the Medical Department, U.S. Army (established in 1918 by the War Department) instructed that nutritional surveys should be conducted to assess food requirements and economy. Findings showed that garrison rations were providing an excess of food, were nutritionally unbalanced and had a high fat content. Based on these findings, a new "training ration" was developed to avoid waste.

The first issue of the Journal of Nutrition was published in 1928 by the American Institute of Nutrition (AIN). AIN was the first independent scientific society for researchers in the field of nutrition. It was cofounded by an Army nutrition officer, John R. Murlin.Nasset, E. M. "Professor John R. Murlin and the Beginnings of The Journal of Nutrition." The Journal of Nutrition. April 2003. 133

While military nutrition research came to a stop between World War I and World War II, the League of Nations established the Commission on Nutrition to make detailed recommendations based on sound scientific principles of nutrition. The Commission's Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition published its final report, emphasizing the importance of foods such as green leafy vegetables, fruit and milk.Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture, and Economic Policy. Geneva, 1937.

1941–1953

In response to an observation of poor nutritional status among enlisting men, the National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council created a force that defines the minimum need and safety margin for nutrient intake. Using available data, the task force specified a tentative set of allowances, intended to address the nutritional needs of civilians and military personnel. These allowances eventually became the Food and Nutrition Board's Recommended Dietary Allowances.Harper, A.E. "Origin of Recommended Daily Allowances-An Historic Overview". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 41(1). 1985

The Medical Nutrition Laboratory (formerly the Food and Nutrition Laboratory, founded in 1942) along with the Medical Nutrition Laboratory of the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute developed and subsequently improved the individual D-, K-, C-, and emergency rations. By June 1945, the Army had 157 nutrition officers. Between 1941 and 1946, more than 30 field ration surveys were conducted to assess health, performance and nutritional status of troops in different environments.[ Nutrition in the National Defense (1941–53) World War II and Post-War Era. Military-Nutrition.com. In 1949, Congress authorized the construction of a new Quartermaster research facility in Natick, Massachusetts. After several name changes, the facility would eventually be known as the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research Development and Engineering Center.

1953–1974

In 1958, the year the Meal, Combat, Individual ration was introduced, the Army's Medical Nutrition Laboratory in Chicago, Illinois, and the Research and Development Department of Fitzsimons General Hospital in Aurora, Colorado, were combined to form the U.S. Army Medical Research and Nutrition Laboratory (USAMRNL). This institution quickly became known as the nation's leading laboratory for human nutrition research and conducted broad and extensive studies.Kuemmerlin, A. J., et al. "Three Decades of Endeavor-A Bibliography: 1944–1974." U.S. Army Medical Research and Nutrition Laboratory. Denver, CO. 1974 In 1973, the USAMRNL moved to San Francisco and became the Letterman Army Institute of Research (LAIR).Delehanty, R. Historic California Posts, Camps and Stations-Letterman Army Medical Center. The California State Military Museum Meanwhile, in 1955, the Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense (ICNND) was established to address nutritional problems.Sandstead, H. H. "Origins of the Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense, and a Brief Note Concerning Its Demise". The Journal of Nutrition. 135:1257–1262, May 2005 After reorganization in 1967, the ICNND published a Ten State Nutrition Survey,Ten-State Nutrition Survey in the United States, 1968–70. Preliminary Report to the Congress. April 1971. exploring issues such as serious hunger, malnutrition and related health concerns. The findings of this report spurred the creation of the Food Stamp program (1974), nutrition programs for the elderly, the Women, Infants and Children (WIC) supplemental nutrition program (1972), the United States Department of Agriculture school breakfast program (permanently authorized in 1975), military dietary reform, and the establishment of NIH-funded Nutrition Research Centers.

1974–1980